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GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 
IN  VIRGINIA 


BY 

HOWARD  LEE  McBAIN,  Ph.  D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Municipal  Science  and  Administration  in 

Columbia  University 


ILLUSTRATED 


.J   '  )    3     J         } 


The  Bell  Book  and  Staiionery  Company 
1918 


Copyiijiht,  V.)m 
By  Howahd  LeI'.  McBain 


^  *       .  • 


•  •    •      «    « 


FOREWORD 


CO 


Regrettable  as  the  fact  is,  a  large  majority  of  children  in  the 
United  States  go  out  into  active  life  before  they  reach  the 
high  school.  Since  this  is  true,  and  since  ours  is  a  govern- 
ment which  the  people  themselves  must  operate,  it  seems 
manifestly  desirable  that  some  time  should  be  given  in  the 
elementary  schools  to  a  consideration  of  the  activities  of  the 
government.     This  book  has  been  written  for  the  pupils  of 

fc    the  elementary  schools. 

>.        Government  in  the  United  States  is  exceedingly  compli- 

J^-    cated  in  organization.     It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  children 

ft*       ...  . 

3    will  find  interest  in,  or  be  able  to  understand,  all  of  its  in- 
tricate details.     The  fundamental  principles  of  its  organiza- 
?»•    tion  are  not,  however,  beyond  their  understanding;  and,  if 

ID 

^   properly  presented  to  them,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  func- 

^    tional  activities  of  the  government  should  not  enlist  their 

keen  interest.     It  is  perhaps  not  of  vital  importance  that  the 

(^    child  in  school  should  be  able  to  memorize  the  titles,  the 

^    powers,  and  the  duties  of  the  innumerable  officers  who  carry 

o    on  the  work  of  the  government.     It  seems  axiomatic,  how- 

lii    ever,  that  in  the  school  itself — and  especially  In  the  school 

5    which  the  government  provides — a  very  determined  effort 

<    should  be  made  to  relate  the  child  to  the  government,  to 

make  him  see  its  necessity  and  its  purpose,  to  make  him 

understand  that,  far  from  being  a  thing  apart  from  his  own 

life,  the  government  is  actually  a  part  of  him  and  he  a  part 

iii 


449654 


iv  FOREWORD 

f)f  it.  This  can  l)c  accomplished  only  by  showing  the  child 
the  governiiunt  in  action  and  by  emphasizing  the  personal 
benefits  ^\hi(h  ]ie  enjoys  by  reason  of  its  existence.  After 
his  interest  has  been  awakened  in  this  way,  he  will  naturally 
find  greater  interest  in  a  study  of  the  principles  which  under- 
lie the  organization  of  the  government  and  will  be  more  eager 
to  learn  something  about  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  more 
important  officers.  The  prime  purpose  in  this  book  is  to 
arouse  an  intelligent  interest.  With  this  end  in  view  the 
functional  activities  of  the  state  and  local  governments  are 
discussed  before  any  attention  is  given  to  the  matter  of  gov- 
ernmental organization.  The  same  plan  precisely  is  followed 
in  the  treatment  of  the  national  government. 

It  is  entirely  natural  that  the  child  will  be  more  interested 
in  those  activities  of  the  go\ernm>ent  which  he  himself  has 
the  opportunity  to  obser\e.  Many  of  these  he  has  probably 
never  connected  with  the  government  at  all.  It  seenis  highly 
appropriate,  therefore,  that  an  elementary  study  of  this  im- 
portant subject  should  bet;in  with  a  dcscri])tion  of  the  func- 
tions of  local  and  state  governments  and  should  proceed 
from  this  to  a  consideration  of  the  national  government. 
This  is  the  plan  of  presentation  which  is  followed  in  this 
book.  It  seems  further  proper,  in  an  elementary  study  such 
as  this  is,  that  the  attention  of  the  child  should  be  directed 
especially  to  the  government  of  his  own  state  and  his  own  local 
community.  There  are  large  differences  in  the  governments 
of  the  several  states  of  the  Union,  as  well  as  in  the  local  units 
of  government  that  are  established  in  these  states.  It  is 
])ractically  impossible  to  give  the  child  any  satisfactory  and 
adequate  conception  of  actual  conditions,  if  the  governments 


FOREWORD  V 

of  all  the  states  are  to  be  surveyed  and  the  treatment  made 
comparative.  This  book  deals,  therefore,  with  government 
as  it  is  found  in  Virginia.  There  is  only  occasional  reference 
to  other  states. 

Each  chapter  is  followed  by  a  series  of  questions  that  may 
be  used  as  a  basis  for  class  exercises.  For  the  most  part  these 
questions  are  not  founded  upon  the  subject  matter  of  the  text; 
they  are  offered  simply  as  suggestions  to  stimulate  class  in- 
terest and  discussion.  Perhaps  the  teacher  herself  will  in 
some  instances  be  unable  to  answer  them.  The  teacher 
should  encourage  the  pupils  to  consult  their  parents  and  others 
in  the  community  who  may  be  able  to  enlighten  them  in  re- 
spect to  these  and  other  similar  questions.  In  this  way,  it 
is  believed,  will  the  entire  study  be  localized  and  vitalized. 

Every  teacher  will  doubtless  wish  to  expand  her  knowledge 
of  this  important  subject  beyond  the  somewhat  elementary 
facts  contained  in  this  book.  Material  for  a  more  detailed 
study  of  the  government  of  Virginia  is  not  readily  available. 
The  only  general  work  on  this  subject  is  Dr.  F.  A.  Magruder's 
Recent  Administration  in  Virginia.  This  monograph,  pub- 
lished in  1912  by  the  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  Mary- 
land, contains  an  exceedingly  interesting  survey  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  several  administrative  departments 
of  the  state  government.  The  work  of  each  of  these  depart- 
ments is  also  described  in  some  detail  in  their  annual  printed 
reports,  copies  of  which  may  usually  be  secured  by  written 
application  to  the  respective  departments  at  Richmond.  The 
state  constitution  and  ihe  laws  enacted  by  the  General 
Assembly  are  compiled  in  what  is  known  as  The  Code  of  Vir- 


vi  FOREWORD 

ginia,  and  its  several  Supplements.     These  volumes  may  be 
consulted  in  the  office  of  any  lawyer. 

By  far  the  best  work  dealing  with  the  whole  subject  of 
national,  state,  and  local  government  in  the  United  States 
is  Beard's  American  Government  and  Politics,  published  by 
the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Young's  The  New 
American  Government  and  Its  Work,  published  by  the  same 
company,  may  also  be  recommended.  Bryce's  American 
Commonwealth,  in  two  volumes,  completely  revised  in  1910, 
is  still  a  standard  work  on  American  government.  This 
work  also  is  published  by  the  Macmillan  Company  and  there 
is  an  abridged  edition  of  it  in  a  single  volume.  Numerous 
other  general  works  on  American  government  might  be  men- 
tioned and  there  arc,  of  course,  many  volumes  dealing  in 
more  detail  with  specific  aspects  or  divisions  of  the  govern- 
ment. It  seems  unnecessary,  however,  to  present  here  any- 
thing like  an  elaborate  bibliography. 

Howard  Lee  McBain. 

New  York  City, 

April,  igi6. 


K 


CONTENTS 


FIRST  PART 


POWERS  AND  DUTIES  OF  STATE  AND  LOCAL  GOV- 
ERNMENTS 

Chapter  Page 

I.  The  Need  for  Government 1 

II.  The  Life  and  Liberty  of  the  People 10 

III.  The  Life  and  Liberty  of  Persons  Accused 

of  Crime 19 

IV.  The  Health  of  the  People 23 

V.  The  Property  of  the  People 30 

VI.  The  Farms  of  the  People 38 

VI I.  The  Schools  of  the  People 43 

VIII.  The  Roads,  Streets,  AND  Parks  of  the  People       56 


SECOND  PART 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  STATE  AND  LOCAL  GOV- 
ERNMENTS 


IX.  The  Constitution  of  the  State 68 

X.  The  Votes  of  the  People 73 

XL  Political  Parties 81 

XI I.  The  State  Legislature 86 


vu 


viii  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

XIII.  The  Execution  of  the  Laws 93 

XIV.  The  State  Courts 104 

XV.  The  Government  of  Counties Ill 

XVI.  The  Government  of  Cities 118 

XVII.  State  and  Local  Taxation 127 


THIRD  PART 


POWERS   AND    DUTIES    OF   THE    NATIONAL    GOV- 
ERNMENT 

XVIII.   Foreign  Affairs  and  National  Defense..      135 
XIX.  Commerce,  Finance,  and  Industries 145 


FOURTH  PART 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 


XX.  The  National  Constitution 157 

XXI.  The  Supremacy  of  the  National  Constitu- 
tion   167 

XXII.  Congress 175 

XXIII.  The  Execution  of  National  Laws 185 

XXIV.  The  National  Courts 200 

XXV.  National  Taxation 208 

XXVI.  The  Government  and  the  Citizen 215 

INDEX 223 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 


FIRST  PART 


POWERS  AND  DUTIES  OF  STATE  AND  LOCAL  GOV- 
ERNMENTS 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  NEED  FOR  GOVERNMENT 

THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  LAND.  The  Commonwealth 
of  Virginia  covers  an  area  of  more  than  forty  thousand  square 
miles.  Residing  upon  this  area  are  more  than  two  million 
people.  If  the  territory  of  the  State  were  divided  equally 
among  all  the  people,  every  man,  woman,  and  child  would 
have  about  twelve  acres  of  land  for  himself.  If  such  a  divi- 
sion were  made,  each  of  us  might  choose  to  live  absolutely 
alone  upon  his  own  twelve  acres  and  have  little  or  nothing 
to  do  with  his  neighbors.  Think  what  this  would  mean. 
Every  individual  would  have  to  provide  shelter  for  himself 
and  all  of  his  own  food  and  clothing.  How  unhappy  and  how 
unsatisfactory  our  lives  would  be. 

Now,  as  everybody  knows,  people  do  not  live  in  any  such 
absurd  fashion  as  this.  Most  of  us  live  with  our  families,  and 
all  of  us  have  friends  and  acquaintances  with  whom  we  mingle. 

1 


2      GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  other  words,  people  do  not  live  separately  but  in  groups. 
And  there  are  many  reasons  why  they  live  in  this  way. 

THE  FAMILY  GROUP.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  point 
out  the  various  reasons  why  people  live  in  family  groups. 
Certainly  one  important  reason  is  that  during  all  the  earlier 
years  of  their  lives  children  are  unable  to  provide  for  them- 
selves. It  is  necessary  that  their  parents  should  care  for  them ; 
and  this  necessity,  among  other  things,  holds  the  family  group 
together.  It  seems  also  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  numerous 
advantages  which  we  enjoy  because  we  live  in  these  family- 
groups.  So  many  are  these  advantages  and  so  strong  are  the 
ties  of  affection  between  the  members  of  the  family  that, 
even  after  children  are  able  to  support  themselves,  they  more 
often  than  not  continue  to  live  in  the  family  group  until  they 
are  ready  to  establish  families  of  their  own.  The  family  is 
indeed  the  smallest  of  all  the  groups  in  which  people  live,  but 
in  many  ways  it  is  also  the  most  important  of  all  groups. 

TBE  COMMUNITY  GROUP.  Of  course  every  family 
usually  lives  by  itself  to  a  certain  extent.  But  families  also 
associate  with  one  another  and  form  larger  groups.  Even 
when  families  live  on  farms  and  are  thus  separated  by  con- 
siderable distances,  they  nevertheless  have  many  interests  in 
common.  They  make,  for  example,  common  use  of  the  roads, 
the  churches,  the  schools,  the  post  offices.  They  form,  in 
other  words,  a  community  group.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  the 
people  of  Virginia  live  in  farming  communities  of  this  kind. 

The  people  who  live  in  cities  and  villages  naturally  live 
much  closer  together  than  the  people  of  farming  communities. 
Naturally  also  they  have  a  larger  number  of  interests  in  com- 
mon. Their  streets,  for  example,  must  be  paved  and  cleaned 
and  lighted  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  population.  They 
must  have  a  common  police  protection  and  common  protec- 
tion against  fires.  Such  things  as  water  and  light  must  be 
furnished  to  their  homes,  and  means  of  transportation  must 
be  provided. 


THE  NEED  FOR  GOVERNMENT  3 

WHY  PEOPLE  LIVE  IN  FARMING  AND  CITY 
COMMUNITIES.  Everybody  understands  why  a  certain 
number  of  people  must  of  necessity  live  in  farming  com- 
munities. Not  only  must  the  people  of  the  farms  raise  their 
own  food  and  the  raw  material  for  their  own  clothing,  but 
they  must  provide  these  things  also  for  the  people  who  reside 
in  cities  and  villages.  There  are  equally  good  reasons  why 
people  live  in  cities  and  villages.  One  of  the  principal  rea- 
sons is  that  the  raw  material  raised  upon  the  farms  may  be 
more  easily  manufactured  in  cities  and  distributed  to  the 
stores  which  make  a  business  of  selling  manufactured  goods. 
The  people  of  the  farming  communities  are  themselves  very 
dependent  upon  the  labors  of  the  people  who  reside  in  cities. 
How  could  the  farms  be  properly  cultivated  without  the  im- 
plements that  are  made  in  city  communities?  Would  it  not 
be  a  distressing  state  of  affairs  if  every  farmer  were  compelled 
not  only  to  raise  the  wool,  the  flax,  and  the  cotton  from  which 
his  clothing  is  made,  but  also  to  manufacture  the  necessary 
cloth  and  thread  and  make  it  up  into  garments? 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  lives  of  all  of  us  are  made  a  great 
deal  easier  and  happier  because  we  live  in  community  groups 
and  because  the  farming  communities  and  the  city  com- 
munities are  dependent  upon  each  other.  Indeed  we  can 
scarcely  imagine  what  our  lives  would  be  if  people  did  not 
live  together  in  these  different  kinds  of  groups. 

HOW  PEOPLE  SATISFY  THEIR  DESIRES.  Every 
person  in  the  world  has  a  certain  number  of  desires  that  he 
wishes  to  satisfy.  Although  the  desires  of  different  indi- 
viduals vary  greatly,  there  are  certain  principal  desires  which 
nearly  everybody  has.  For  example,  life  itself  is  one  of  the 
things  which  all  of  us  desire  to  preserve.  Most  of  us  also  are 
anxious  to  preser\e  our  health.  We  like  to  be  free  also  to 
do  as  we  please  without  interference  from  others.  In  other 
words,  we  desire  liberl}'  of  action. 


4      GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Another  thing  which  nearly  everybody  desires  is  to  earn 
money.  Most  people  do  not  care  for  money  in  itself,  but 
money  helps  us  to  live  our  lives  in  our  community.  The 
farmer  does  not  ordinarily  exchange  a  quantity  of  potatoes 
or  corn  for  a  suit  of  clothes  or  a  plow.  He  accepts  money  for 
his  potatoes  or  corn,  and  he  gives  the  same  money  for  the 
clothing  or  the  plow  that  he  wants.  Moreover,  the  possession 
of  money  enables  us  to  buy  things  which  we  call  proj^erty — 
such  things,  for  exan  pie,  as  land  and  houses,  books  and  fur- 
niture, food  and  clothing,  horses  and  cattle.  These  things 
make  our  lives  more  comfortable,  and  it  is  natural  that  we 
should  seek  to  obtain  them. 

Most  of  us  desire  not  only  to  associate  with  the  peojjle  of 
our  own  community  but  also  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  people 
of  other  communities.  For  this  purpose  we  need  roads  and 
bridges,  railroads  and  boat  lines,  postal  and  express  services, 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines.  Another  desire  which  most 
j:)eopIe  have  is  the  desire  for  knowledge.  We  want  to  know 
things.  We  must  have,  therefore,  not  only  schools  and  col- 
leges but  also  books  and  magazines  and  ne\\  spapers. 

These,  in  a  general  way,  are  a  few  of  the  desires  which  nearly 
everybody  has.  In  the  realization  of  these  desires,  we  find 
hai)piness  for  ourselves,  and  we  increase  our  usefulness  to 
our  family  and  our  community  groups. 

THE  CONFLICT  OF  INTERESTS  AMONG  PEOPLE. 
When  peopJe  live  in  groups  it  is  utterly  impossible  for  each 
individual  to  pursue  his  own  desires  Vvithout  any  regard  for 
others.  We  desire  to  preserve  our  lives;  but  sometimes,  as 
in  time  of  war,  men  gladly  give  up  their  lives  for  their  coun- 
try. We  desire  health;  but  we  cannot  ignore  the  interests  of 
others  in  this  matter.  W^e  have  no  right,  for  example,  in 
seeking  to  protect  our  own  health,  to  drain  the  sewage  from 
our  house  into  an  open  stream,  if  thereiiy  we  endanger  the 
health  of  our  neighbors.  We  desire  liberty  of  action;  but  we 
must  use  our  liberty  \\  itli  chie  consideration  for  the  rights  of 


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6      GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

others.  If  we  are  seized  with  some  conUigious  disease,  we 
have  no  right  to  roam  at  Hberty  and  thus  run  the  risk  of 
spreading  that  disease.  If  we  live  on  a  farm,  we  have  no 
right  to  refuse  to  build  fences  that  will  prevent  our  cattle  from 
straying  abroad  and  destroying  the  crops  of  others.  We  have 
no  right  to  drive  our  horses  or  our  automobiles  recklessly,  for 
in  so  doing  we  imperil  the  lives  of  others.  In  other  words,  our 
liberty  of  action  must  in  many  ways  be  restrained  in  order 
that  the  rights  and  desires  of  other  people  may  be  protected. 

THE  NEED  OF  ASSISTANCE  IN  ATTAINING  OUR 
DESIRES.  It  is  perfectly  clear  that  in  the  attainment  of 
some  of  their  desires  people  must  act  together.  They  must 
provide  some  things  which  they  can  use  in  common.  It 
would  certainly  be  ridiculous  if  each  farmer  attempted  to 
build  his  own  road  to  a  neighboring  city  or  village.  It  would 
be  impossible  for  every  family  to  establish  a  well-equipped 
school  for  the  children  of  the  family.  In  a  city  of  any  si/e 
it  would  be  very  difficult  for  each  family  to  supply  itself  with 
water  by  having  its  own  well.  And  surely  we  should  be  great- 
ly handicapped  if  we  were  compelled  to  forward  our  letters 
by  special  messengers.  In  such  matters  as  these  we  as  indi- 
viduals need  assistance;  and  we  find  that  assistance  by  acting 
together. 

THE  REASONS  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  ES- 
TABLISHED. Because  the  desires  and  interests  of  one  per- 
son so  often  conflict  with  the  interests  of  others  who  live  in 
the  same  group  it  is  nearly  always  desirable  to  lay  down  cer- 
tain rules  which  everyone  must  obey.  Even  in  the  family 
group  such  rules  are  necessary,  though  they  are  seldom,  if 
ever,  written  down.  So  in  the  school  there  are  rules  which 
must  be  respected.  In  the  larger  groups  which  form  com- 
munities there  are  also  rules.  In  every  community,  for  ex- 
ample, it  is  a  rule  that  no  person  shall  take  the  life  of  another 
person;  and  the  community  will  punish  any  person  who  dis- 
obeys this  rule.     The  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  people  of  a 


THE  NEED  ]'C)R  COVERNMENT  7 

community  are  called  laws.  The  members  of  the  com- 
munity choose  (or,  as  we  say,  elect)  certain  of  their  number 
to  frame  these  laws  for  the  conmmnity  and  the  kiws  so  framed 
are  binding  upon  everybody.  Sometimes  we  may  feel  that 
the  laws  of  a  community  are  irksome,  because  they  interfere 
with  this  or  that  thing  that  we  as  individuals  want  to  do. 
Sometimes  also  we  may  think  this  or  that  law  is  unnecessary 
or  unwise.     We  should  remember,  however,  that  laws  pro- 


VIEW  OF  A   PROSPEROUS    FARMING  COMMUNITY 


tect  us  from  others  in  far  greater  measure  than  they  actually 
restrict  us  in  what  we  ought  reasonably  to  be  permitted  to  do. 
For  the  most  part  they  deprive  us  only  of  those  rights  and 
liberties  which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  give  up  for  the  general 
interests  of  the  whole  body  of  people  in  the  community. 

Not  only  must  laws  be  made  but  they  must  also  l)e  enforced ; 
and  the  people  of  every  community  select  for  this  purpose  a 


8      (.OVKRNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

number  of  persons  whom  we  call  officers.  It  is  the  duty  of 
these  officers  to  see  that  the  laws  are  obeyed  and  to  settle 
disputes  that  arise  between  individuals  as  to  the  meaninp:  of 
the  laws. 

In  addition  to  all  tliis,  tin;  jjcople  ol  the  ccjunnunity  must 
provide  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  the  various 
services  which  they  need  in  common.  This,  again,  requires 
officers — officers  who  are  empowered  to  build  and  repair 
roads,  to  operate  post  offices,  to  construct  and  manage 
schools.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  sufficient  for  a  community 
simply  to  ha\e  laws  that  impose  duties  and  restrictions  upon 
individuals  for  the  common  benefit.  The  community  must 
also  ha\'e  certain  services  performed  which  indi\'iduals  cannot 
w  ell  supply  for  themselves. 

These,  then,  are  the  reasons  why  people  establish  govern- 
ments. The  government  consists  of  officers  whom  we  choose 
to  perform  certain  duties  for  us  as  a  community.  We  rc- 
c|uire  some  of  these  officers  to  make  the  law^s  for  the  com- 
munity, so  that  ev^ery  one  of  us  may  know  w'hat  his  own  rights 
are  and  what  are  his  obligations  tow^ard  his  neighbors.  To 
other  officers  we  give  the  power  to  enforce  these  laws,  so  that 
we  may  have  some  authority  to  appeal  to  when  our  rights  are 
ignored  or  abused  by  another  person.  We  select  still  another 
group  of  officers  to  perform  certain  services  which  the  people 
of  the  entire  community  need  to  use  in  common. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  we  could  get  along  in  any  com- 
munity if  we  did  not  establish  a  government  to  accomplish 
these  purposes  for  us.  It  is  highly  iniportant  that  each  of  us 
should  l:e  interested  in  the  government  of  his  community,  for 
certain  it  is  that  we  should  find  many  difficulties  in  living  our 
lives  among  our  fellowmen  and  in  realizing  many  of  our  de- 
sires if  there  w^ere  no  such  thing  as  the  government.  It  is 
desirable,  therefore,  that  we  should  understand,  in  the  first 
i:)lace,  what  our  government  is  undertaking  to  do  for  us,  and. 


THE  NRED  FOR  GOVERNMENT  9 

in  the  second  place,  how  our  government  is  organized  to  carry 
on  its  various  activities.     These  are  the  objects  of  our  study. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  What  sort  of  community  do  you  live  in — is  it  a  farming  community* 
or  a  town,  or  a  city?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  how  many  people  live  in  your 
community.  In  your  neighborhood  are  the  houses  close  together  or  fa^ 
apart?  Think  of  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  associate  with  the  jieople 
of  your  community — when  and  where,  for  instance,  do  you  meet  them? 

2.  Mention  some  of  the  advantages  that  people  enjoy  because  they 
live  in  family  groups.  If  you  lived  absolutely  alone,  how  would  you  get 
your  food?  Your  clothing?  Furniture?  How  would  j'ou  shelter  your- 
self? 

3.  If  you  live  in  a  farming  community,  mention  some  of  the  advantages 
you  derive  from  associating  with  other  people  in  your  community.  Do 
you  use  any  things  that  are  manufacturofl  by  the  ])eop'.e  of  city  communi- 
ties?    Mention  some  of  these  things. 

4.  If  you  live  in  a  city  community,  in  what  ways  are  you  dependent 
upon  other  ))eople  in  your  community?  In  what  ways  are  you  dependent 
upon  the  jieople  of  farming  communities? 

5.  Mention  some  of  the  desires  that  you  ha\"e.  Have  you  any  desire 
that  might  conflict  with  the  rights  or  desires  of  other  members  of  your 
family?     Of  your  neighbors? 

6.  Explain  how  some  of  your  desires  are  attained  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  the  peoi)le  of  your  community  have  acted  together.  Who,  for  ex- 
ample, provided  the  road  or  the  street  over  which  you  traveled  to  school? 
Who  provided  the  school? 

7.  Why  do  you  attend  school?  What  desire  are  you  satisfying? 
Mention  some  of  the  ways  by  which  the  people  of  your  community  keep 
in  touch  with  the  people  of  other  communities. 

8.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  government  of  a  community?  Why  is  it 
necessary?  Can  you  think  of  any  w  ay  in  wliich  the  government  restricts 
you  in  order  that  the  interests  or  desires  of  other  people  may  not  be  in- 
terfered with?  Can  you  think  of  any  services  provided  by  the  govern- 
ment which  you  could  not  provide  for  yourself? 

9.  Who  makes  the  rules  of  your  school?  Who  enforces  them?  Would 
it  be  appropriate  to  speak  of  the  "guvernment"  of  j-our  school?  What 
would  you  mean? 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

PROTECTION  OF  PERSONS  AGAINST  VIOLENCE. 
For  the  most  part  the  people  of  a  community  are  accustomed 
to  Hve  in  harmony  and  peace  with  one  another.  Occasionally, 
however,  one  person  attacks  another  and  sometimes  even 
takes  his  life.  This  is  naturally  prohibited  by  the  law,  and 
the  government  makes  every  effort  to  arrest  the  person  who 
commits  an  offense  of  this  kind,  and  especially  the  person  who 
takes  another's  life. 

In  every  community  there  are  officers  provided  for  this 
purpose.  In  farming  communities  there  are  constables  and 
sheriffs.  In  city  communities,  because  of  the  close  associa- 
tion of  many  people,  personal  attacks  are  more  frequent  than 
in  farming  communities.  In  cities,  therefore,  the  government 
provides  a  more  numerous  force  of  officers  known  as  the  police 
force.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  patrolled  by  day  and  by 
night  in  order  that  persons  may  be  promptly  protected  from 
the  violence  of  others. 

Of  course  it  often  happens  that  these  officers  who  are 
provided  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  community  are  not  on 
hand  when  an  attack  is  made,  but  the  knowledge  that  the 
government  has  provided  such  officers,  who  will  seek  out  and 
arrest  offenders  and  bring  them  to  punishment,  serves  to  pre- 
vent many  attacks  that  might  otherwise  be  made.  In  this 
way,  then,  does  the  government  endeavor  to  protect  us  against 
those  persons  in  the  community  who,  in  a  fit  of  passion  or  1)c- 
cause  of  some  grudge  against  us,  might  attempt  to  injure  us 
or  destroy  our  li\'es. 

Very  occasionally  in  ei  community  there  is  a  large  uprising 
of  persons,  who  in  their  anger  iire  ready  to  injure  or  take  the 

10 


LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


11 


lives  of  those  whom  they  regard  as  their  enemies.  This,  for 
example,  sometimes  occurs  when  a  large  strike  is  on,  and  when 
the  striking  workmen  or  those  who  sympathize  with  them  try 
to  prevent  others  from  taking  their  places.  Sometimes  also 
an  unruly  mob  will  attempt  to  take  the  life  of  some  person 
who  has,  or  is  supposed  to  have,  committed  an  ugly  crime  in 
the  community.  When  conditions  like  this  prevail  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  ordinary  officers,  such  as  constables,  the 
sheriff,  or  the  police,  to  furnish  the  necessary  protection  for 
the  lives   of   those   who   are    threatened.     The   government, 


COMPANIES   OF  MILITIA   ON   DRESS   PARADE 

therefore,  provides  what  is  known  as  the  militia.  The  militia 
consists  of  companies  of  troops  which  may  be  called  out  and 
sent  to  the  scene  of  any  unusual  disturbance  in  order  that  the 
peace  may  be  preserved  and  the  rioters  prevented  from  carry- 
ing out  their  designs.  It  is,  however,  only  on  rare  occasions 
that  there  is  any  necessity  for  the  use  of  the  militia. 

PROTECTION  OF  PERSONS  AGAINST  A  CCIDENTS. 
Some  accidents  are  apparently  so  unavoidable  that  perhaps 
nobody  can  be  blamed  for  them ;  but  for  many  of  the  accidents 


12    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

that  hapi)en  to  persons  in  the  course  of  their  Hves  they  them- 
vSehes  arc  alone  responsible.  Of  course  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  government  to  attempt  to  protect  us  against  every 
avoidable  accident  that  might  occur.  There  are,  however, 
certain  circumstances  in  which  the  dangers  of  accident  are  so 
apparent  that  the  government  does  attempt  to  furnish  a  de- 
gree of  protection. 

The  people  who  liv^e  in  farming  communities  are  exposed  to 
only  a  few  dangers  from  accident  in  respect  to  which  the  gov- 
ernment can  be  of  assistance.  The  government  retjuires,  for 
example,  that  persons  dri\'ing  along  roads  shall  keep  to  the 
right,  in  order  that  one  drixer  may  know  what  mo\e  to  expect 
from  another.  The  government  also  limits  the  speed  at 
which  automobiles  may  travel.  Sometimes  in  the  construc- 
tion of  roads  and  bridges  the  government  erects  fences  or  rails 
to  protect  persons  from  dangerous  ditches  or  ravines.  Espe- 
cially does  the  government  endeavor  to  protect  persons  against 
accidents  from  railway  trains.  Wherever  a  road  crosses  a 
railway  track  the  government  requires  that  the  railway  com- 
pany shall  erect  a  sign  warning  the  traveler  on  the  road  of 
possible  danger.  Sometimes  there  is  the  additional  warning 
of  a  bell  indicating  the  approach  of  a  train.  Occasionally, 
moreover,  the  railway  company  is  required  to  carry  its  tracks 
on  a  bridge  above  the  road  or  to  carry  the  road  on  a  bridge 
over  the  tracks  in  order  that  the  danger  from  accident  may 
be  completely  avoided. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  cities,  where  the  risks  are  much  greater 
than  in  farming  communities,  that  the  government  under- 
takes in  numerous  ways  to  lessen  the  possibility  of  accidents. 
Trains  are  required  to  move  at  a  very  slow  rate  of  speed.  The 
operation  of  street  cars  and  of  automobiles  is  regulated  in 
many  ways  by  law;  and  not  infrequently  special  policemen  are 
placed  at  corners  where  the  traffic  is  particularly  heavy  in 
order  that  they  may  regulate  the  movement  of  vehicles. 

The  government  also  does  many  things  to  lessen  the  danger 


LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


13 


from  accidents  that  result  from  fires  in  cities.  Many  build- 
ings are  required  to  be  equipped  with  fire  escapes.  In  the 
theatres  and  other  buildings  where  large  numbers  of  people 
gather  the  government  regulates  such  things  as  the  width  of 
the  aisles,  the  number  of  people  that  may  be  allowed  to  stand, 
and  the  number  and  kind  of  exits  that  must  be  provided,  in 
order  that,  in  case  of  fire,  the  audience  may  quickly  gain  the 
street.  Moreover,  in  all  of  the  larger  cities  there  is  a  force  of 
officers  for  the  special  purpose  of  putting  out  fires,  and  many 
persons  are  saved  from  accident  and  from  loss  of  life  by  the 
heroic  work  of  these  firemen. 


A  STEEL  BRIDGE  UNDER  CONSTRUCTION 
This  huge  viaduct,  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  helps  to  prevent  accidents  by  carry- 
ing traffic  high  above  numerous  railroad  tracks 

The  government,  further,  attempts  to  lessen  the  dangers 
from  accident  to  the  workmen  who  are  employed  in  large 
manufacturing  plants.  The  managers  of  these  plants  are 
required  to  place  guards  around  dangerous  machinery  and 
otherwise  to  provide  against  accidents  to  their  employes, 
whether  from  fire  or  from  the  operation  of  the  plant. 


14    C.OVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

PROTECTION  OF  THE  POOR.  In  still  another  way 
does  the  government  throw  its  protection  around  the  life  of 
the  individual.  When  a  man's  health  and  strength  have 
failed,  when  he  is  without  money  and  without  friends  or 
relatives  to  support  him,  he  finds  that  the  government  has 
made  provision  for  his  care.  Formerly  this  protection  of  the 
poor  was  given  by  the  churches  and  by  private  persons  and 
organizations.  These  still  do  a  great  deal  toward  helping 
those  who  are  unable  to  help  themselves.  In  modern  times, 
however,  the  care  of  the  poor  has  come  ^r  ,  regarded  as  one 
of  the  duties  of  the  government.  We  find  almshouses,  there- 
fore, in  every  county  and  city;  and  officers  are  appointed 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  these  unfortunates  in  the  com- 
nmnity  are  provided  for. 

PROTECTION  OF  AGED  SOLDIERS.  In  Virginia  the 
government  also  contributes  to  the  support  of  the  soldiers 
who  fought  in  the  War  Between  the  States,  and  who,  by  rea- 
son of  their  disablement  or  their  losses  as  a  result  of  the  war, 
are  unable  to  care  for  themselves.  These  venerable  men 
gladly  gave  their  services  to  the  state  in  their  youth.  They 
stood  ready  at  a  time  of  great  need  to  sacrifice  their  lives  for 
the  Southern  cause.  In  many  cases  they  lost  everything. 
It  is  no  more  than  right  and  just,  therefore,  that  the  govern- 
ment should  make  some  provision  for  them  during  the  de- 
clining years  of  their  lives. 

THE  MEANING  OF  LIBERTY  IN  THE  COM- 
MUNITY. As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  note,  our 
desire  for  liberty  of  action  must  be  restricted  in  many  ways 
in  the  interest  of  other  i)cople  who  live  with  us  in  the  com- 
munity. If  the  government  did  not  impose  certain  restric- 
tions upon  our  liberties,  llie  thoughtless  and  inconsiderate 
people  of  the  community  would  often  seriously  interfere  with 
the  rights  of  others.  It  is  only  by  restricting  the  liberty  of 
each  of  us  to  some  extent  that  the  interests  of  all  can  be  pro- 
tected. 


LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE  15 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  government  imposes  restrictions  upon  our  liberties. 
This  would  necessitate  a  review  of  nearly  all  of  the  laws  which 
the  government  enacts;  for  most  laws  deprive  us  of  liberty  in 
one  way  or  another.  We  are  compelled  to  do  certain  things 
which,  if  our  liberty  was  wholly  unrestrained,  we  might  not 
choose  to  do.  We  are  likewise  forbidden  to  do  many  things 
which  we  might  otherwise  wish  to  do.  It  is  a  great  mistake, 
however,  to  suppose  that  these  restrictions  upon  our  freedom 
of  action  are  impo;  merely  for  the  sake  of  interfering  with 
us.  This  is  far  from  tne  fact.  Restrictions  are  never  placed 
upon  our  individual  liberties  except  when  the  government  be- 
lieves that  the  whole  community  will  be  benefited  by  such  re- 
strictions. 

HOW  THE  GOVERNMENT  ITSELF  IS  PROHIBITED 
FROM  INTERFERING  WITH  OUR  LIBERTY.  It  is  a 
mistake  also  to  suppose  that  the  government  can  go  to  any 
extent  it  chooses  in  restricting  our  liberties.  There  are  cer- 
tain personal  rights  that  we  as  a  people  regard  as  of  great  im- 
portance ;  and  we  expressly  prohibit  the  government  from  in- 
terfering with  these  rights.  For  example,  we  prohibit  the 
government  from  depriving  us  of  freedom  of  speech  or  of 
freedom  of  religion ;  and  we  do  not  permit  the  officers  of  the 
government  to  make  unreasonable  entry  into  our  dwellings. 
Moreover,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  we  limit  the 
power  which  the  government  may  exercise  over  persons 
accused  of  crime,  in  order  that  innocent  persons  may  not 
suffer  unjustly. 

THE  RIGHT  OF  FREEDOM  OF  SPEECH  AND  THE 
PRESS.  In  some  countries  people  ha\e  to  be  very  careful 
what  they  say  or  write  or  print  about  the  government.  In 
Virginia,  however,  and  indeed  throughout  the  United  States, 
there  is  no  suppression  of  news  in  regard  to  the  government. 
Anybody  may  criticise  the  affairs  of  the  government  as  he 
pleases.     Why  is  such  liberty  permitted  in  America?     It  is 


16    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

because  we  believe  that  the  more  the  people  know  about  the 
government,  the  better  government  we  shall  have.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  that  we  should  be  permitted  to  discuss 
the  actions  of  the  government  very  freely.  If  corrupt  or 
inefficient  officers  get  control  of  the  government,  it  is  right 
that  the  people  should  know  this.  It  is  true  that  able  and 
conscientious  officers  are  sometimes  unjustly  condemned,  and 
the  liberty  that  we  as  a  people  enjoy  is  thus  abused.  This 
is  unfortunate.  But  even  though  our  liberty  of  speech  is 
sometimes  abused,  it  would  be  far  worse  if  we  were  kept  in 
ignorance  of  what  the  officers  of  the  government  are  doing. 

When  persons  become  officers  of  the  government  they  are 
in  a  way  the  servants  of  the  whole  community,  and  they 
place  themselves  in  a  position  that  especially  invites  criticism 
of  their  acts.  In  criticising  their  acts,  however,  we  have  no 
right  to  say  or  write  false  and  malicious  things  about  the  per- 
sonal character  of  these  officers.  M  uch  less  have  we  the  right 
to  say  and  write  whatever  we  choose  about  our  fellow  citi- 
zens. If  we  could  do  this,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  one  person 
might  often  do  serious  injury  to  another  person's  reputation 
and  standing  in  the  community.  Whenever  a  person  can 
prove  that  he  has  been  falsely  slandered  by  another,  the  law 
provides  that  the  person  who  has  slandered  him  shall  pay  him 
a  sum  of  money  equal  to  the  loss  that  he  has  sustained. 
Officers  of  the  government  do  not  often  attempt  to  recover 
money  damages  of  this  kind,  but  private  persons  are  not  in- 
frequently compelled  to  do  so.  While  we  as  a  people  are  pro- 
tected in  our  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  the  govern- 
ment has  the  power  to  limit  that  freedom  to  the  end  that  the 
reputations  of  individuals  may  not  be  destroyed  by  their 
personal  enemies. 

THE  RIGHT  OF  FREEDOM  OF  RELIGION.  In  times 
gone  by  the  churches  were  often  very  closely  connected  with 
the  government.  Indeed  the  officers  of  the  government 
would  often  persecute  those  who  held  religious  beliefs  that 


LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE  17 

differed  from  their  own.  Even  after  the  days  of  rehgious  per- 
secutions passed,  the  government  often  ga\e  special  support 
to  a  particular  religious  denomination.  And  this  is  the  situa- 
tion that  prevails  in  some  countries  even  at  the  present  time. 

In  Virginia  the  Episcopal  or  Anglican  Church  was  sup- 
ported by  the  government  down  to  the  year  1785.  It  was 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  James 
Madison  that  this  system  was  abohshed.  Thereafter  the 
Episcopal  Church,  hke  all  the  other  denominations,  was  com- 
pelled to  support  itself  and  secured  no  special  favors  from  the 
government.  As  everybody  knows,  we  now  enjoy  absolute 
freedom  to  worship  at  any  church  we  choose,  and  we  are  not 
required  by  law  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  any  church. 
It  is  highly  improbable  that  the  government  w'ould  ever  at- 
tempt at  this  late  day  to  give  special  favor  to  any  particular 
denomination  or  sect.  But  in  order  to  guard  against  this 
possibility,  we  have  absolutely  prohibited  the  government 
from  doing  so. 

THE  RIGHT  TO  BE  FREE  FROM  SLA  VER  Y.  Before 
the  War  Between  the  States,  almost  the  entire  negro  popula- 
tion of  Virginia,  in  common  with  the  negroes  of  the  rest  of  the 
South,  was  held  in  slavery.  Slaves  were  bought  and  sold. 
Indeed  they  were  exchanged  very  much  like  other  property. 
Although  they  were  in  most  cases  treated  kindly  by  their 
masters,  they  did  not  enjoy  any  considerable  degree  of  per- 
sonal freedom.  They  were  compelled  to  do  what  their  owners 
required  of  them.  As  a  result  of  the  war  the  negroes  were 
made  free,  and  today  they  enjoy  the  same  amount  of  per- 
sonal freedom  that  is  permitted  to  the  white  population.  It 
is  now  a  general  principle  of  government  throughout  the 
United  States  that  no  person  can  be  made  the  slave  of  an- 
other. One  person  is  as  free  as  another,  which  means  that 
everybody  is  free  to  do  as  he  pleases  so  long  as  he  obeys  the 
laws  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives. 


18    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITTCS  IN  VIRGINIA 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  What  means,  if  anj',  are  ])rovided  in  your  school  for  the  protection 
of  the  hves  of  the  teachers  and  pupils?  Are  there  fire-escapes?  Are 
there  broad  staircases?    Are  there  sufficient  exits?    Do  you  have  fire  drills? 

2.  If  you  live  near  a  railroad,  do  you  know  of  any  precautions  that 
are  taken  to  prevent  accidents? 

3.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  do  you  know  of  any  precautions  that  are  taken 
to  prevent  accidents  by  fire  in  i)ublic  buildiiifis?  To  jjrevent  accidents 
in  the  streets?  How  are  your  city  streets  lighted,  and  why?  Who  owns 
the  lighting  i)lant? 

4.  Ask  some  manufacturer  in  your  community  what  things  the  gov- 
ernment compels  him  to  do  to  safeguard  his  emjjloyes. 

5.  Find  out  what  provision  is  made  in  your  community  for  the  care  of 
the  poor.     Who  sujjports  the  poorhouse? 

6.  Is  there  a  militia  company  organized  in  your  community?  Do  you 
know  of  any  time  that  it  has  been  called  into  active  service?  If  so,  when, 
and  why? 

7.  Mention  some  of  the  restrictions  ujjon  your  liberty  in  the  school- 
room^ — what  are  some  of  the  things  that  you  are  not  permitted  to  do? 

Explain  how  these  thin^-s  would  interfere  with  the  rights  of  others.  Why 
are  you  forced  to  consider  the  rights  of  others?  Why  are  they  forced  to 
consider  your  rights? 

8.  How  is  your  liberty  in  the  family  restricted?  Who  makes  the  rules 
which  you  must  obey  in  the  home?     Why  are  they  made? 

9.  Compare  the  restrictions  upon  your  liberty  in  the  school  and  in  the 
family  with  the  restrictions  which  the  government  places  upon  the  liberties 
of  people  living  in  the  community.  Why  are  these  latter  restrictions 
necessary?     What,  then,  do  we  mean  by  liberty  in  a  community? 

10.  Can  the  government  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  people  to  any  extent 
it  chooses?  Can  the  government,  for  instance,  prohibit  freedom  of  speech? 
What  do  we  mean  by  freedom  of  speech?  Can  one  man  say  or  print  any- 
thing he  chooses  about  another  without  fear  of  punishment? 

11.  Does  the  government  i)rescribe  what  church  you  shall  attend? 
Could  it  do  so  if  it  wished?  Why?  Did  the  government  of  Virginia  ever 
make  such  laws?     Why  were  they  abolished?     What  is  meant  by  an 

"established  church"? 

12.  Did  you  ever  hear  or  read  that  some  officer  of  the  government  was 
unworthy  of  his  position?  Have  the  people  in  Virginia  the  right  to  talk 
freely  about  the  officers  of  the  government?  What  good  results  from 
this?     What  evil  sometimes  results? 

13.  When  was  slavery  abolished  in  Virginia?  How  much  liberty  did 
the  slaves  enjoy?     What  liberties  do  the  colored  people  enjoy  today? 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  LIFE  AND   LIBERTY  OF  PERSONS  ACCUSED 

OF  CRIME 

PROTECTION  GIVEN  TO  PERSONS  ACCUSED  OF 
CRIME.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  persons  who  violate 
the  laws  of  the  community  should  be  punished.  Otherwise 
the  laws  and  the  government  itself  would  be  useless.  But  it 
is  no  less  important  that  innocent  persons  should  not  be  made 
to  suffer  merely  because  they  are  suspected  of  having  violated 
the  laws.  In  order  to  avoid  this  we  give  to  all  persons  who 
are  accused  of  committing  crimes  certain  rights  which  they 
may  demand. 

THE  PRESUMPTION  OF  INNOCENCE.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  of  these  rights  is  that  every  person  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  innocent  until  the  government  has  proved  that 
he  is  guilty.  In  other  words,  unless  the  government  can  find 
other  persons  who  saw  the  accused  commit  the  offense  in 
question,  or  unless  it  can  show  certain  facts  which  prove  the 
person's  guilt  beyond  any  reasonable  doubt,  the  person  can- 
not be  punished,  whether  he  is  actually  guilty  or  not. 

It  is  probable  that  a  guilty  person  is  sometimes  allowed  to  go 
unpunished  because  the  government  cannot  get  actual  proof 
against  him.  This  is  regrettable,  but  it  is  occasionally  neces- 
sary. Otherwise  the  officers  of  the  government  would  be 
able  to  punish  a  person  merely  because  they  thought  he  had 
committed  an  offense.     That  would  indeed  be  unendurable. 

THE  PRIVILEGE  OF  BEING  RELEASED  ON  BAIL. 
Of  course  persons  must  sometimes  be  held  merely  on  sus- 
picion, until  the  government  has  had  time  to  investigate,  and 
until  what  is  known  as  a  trial  can  be  held.  Even  in  such 
cases  the  person  so  held  has  certain  rights  and  privileges.     He 

19 


20    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

can,  for  instance,  ask  to  be  released  on  bail.  If  this  request 
is  granted,  someone  must  deposit  a  sum  of  money  with  the 
government;  and  in  case  the  person  escapes  from  the  com- 
munity, or  fails  to  present  himself  for  trial,  this  money  is 
forfeited  to  the  government.  The  amount  of  bail  that  is 
demanded  usually  varies  with  the  seriousness  of  the  offense. 
And  sometimes,  either  because  of  the  seriousness  of  the 
offense,  or  because  the  government  has  reason  to  believe  that 
the  suspected  person  is  planning  to  escape  and  forfeit  his  bail, 
the  government  refuses  to  allow  him  to  be  released  on  bail. 
In  many  cases,  however,  it  is  only  fair  that  a  person  who  is 
merely  suspected  should  be  permitted  to  go  at  liberty  until 
the  government  is  ready  to  put  him  on  trial  and  prove  his 
guilt.  The  chief  objection  to  the  bail  system  is  that  a  poor 
person  or  a  person  unknown  in  the  community  often  finds 
difficulty  in  raising  the  money  to  deposit  with  the  govern- 
ment. 

THE  RIGHT  OF  INDICTMENT  BY  GRAND  JURY. 
If  the  offense  of  which  a  person  is  accused  is  a  grave  one,  he 
cannot  actually  l;e  brought  to  trial  upon  the  mere  accusation 
of  some  officer  of  the  government.  This  officer  must  present 
the  e\'idence  which  he  has  against  the  person  to  a  group  of 
private  citizens  who  are  known  as  a  grand  jury.  If  this 
grand  jury  thinks  that  the  evidence  against  the  person  is 
sufficient,  they  bring  in  what  is  known  as  an  indictment 
against  him.  This  simply  means  that  the  person  is  formally 
accused  by  the  grand  jury  and  is  ordered  to  be  tried  for  the 
offense.  If  the  grand  jury  thinks  the  e\idence  insufficient, 
they  dismiss  the  indictment;  and  the  person  cannot  then  be 
held  for  trial.  Sometimes  a  person  is  arrested  on  suspicion 
and  held  (or  released  on  bail)  until  the  grand  jury  can  be 
assembled.  He  is  then  said  to  be  "held  for  the  grand  jury." 
Sometimes  he  is  not  arrested  at  all  until  after  the  grand  jury 
has  iii<]i(-t('fl  him.      In  cither  case,  alter  the  grand  jury  has 


LIFE  AND  LIBERTY  OF  THE  ACCUSED         21 

])resented  an  indictment  against  a  person,  he  is  said  to  be 
':held  for  trial." 

THE  RIGHT  OF  TRIAL  BY  JURY.  For  all  the  more 
serious  offenses  a  person  is  entitled  to  be  tried  by  jury.  This 
means  that  his  guilt  or  innocence  must  be  determined  by  a 
group  of  tAveKe  pri\ate  citizens  who  reside  in  the  community 
in  which  the  offense  was  committed.  Moreover,  these  twelve 
persons  must  all  agree.  Otherwise  a  new  jury  must  be  chosen 
and  another  trial  held.  More  than  this,  the  accused  must  be 
tried  in  an  "open  court" — that  is,  a  court  to  which  the  public 
is  admitted.  The  court  may,  however,  be  cleared,  if  those 
who  are  present  attempt  to  influence  the  jury  by  showing 
their  feeling  for  or  against  the  prisoner.  The  accused  can- 
not be  compelled  to  testify  against  himself.  If  he  prefers  to 
remain  silent,  he  has  the  right  to  do  so.  The  witnesses  against 
him  must  gi\  e  their  testimony  in  his  presence.  And  the  gov- 
ernment is  required  to  force  the  attendance  of  any  witnesses 
whom  the  prisoner  may  demand. 

When  all  the  evidence  for  and  against  the  accused  has  been 
presented,  the  jury  retires  to  consider  the  case.  If  they  come 
to  an  agreement,  they  bring  in  what  is  known  as  a  verdict. 
This  verdict  may  be  either  of  guilt  or  of  innocence.  If  the 
verdict  is  one  of  guilt,  the  accused  is  said  to  be  "convicted"; 
and  thereafter  he  is  "sentenced"  to  serve  the  punishment 
which  the  law  provides  for  the  particular  offense. 

THE  RIGHT  OF  APPEAL.  It  is  often  the  case  that  a 
prisoner,  even  after  he  has  been  convicted  and  sentenced,  has 
the  right  to  carry  his  case  to  another  and  higher  court.  This 
we  call  the  right  of  appeal.  He  is  not  again  tried  by  a  jury ; 
but  this  higher  court  considers  whether  the  case  was  properly 
tried  before  the  jury.  If  they  conclude  that  the  trial  was 
not  conducted  with  all  the  fairness  required  by  the  law,  they 
ha\e  the  power  to  order  that  a  new  trial  be  held. 

THE  RIGHT  NOT  TO  BE  PUNISHED  IN  A  CRUEL 
OR    UNUSUAL    MANNER.     Various   degrees   of    punish- 


22    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

ment  for  different  offenses  are  prescribed  by  the  laws  of  the 
coninuinity.  But  the  government  in  making  these  laws  may 
jiot  provide  any  cruel  or  unusual  punishment.  The  most 
usual  punishment  is  a  fine  or  imj^risonment,  and  sometimes 
both  a  fine  and  a  term  of  imprisonment  are  imposed.  For  a 
few  very  serious  offenses  the  government  prescribes  the 
punishment  of  death.  Formerly  in  Virginia  persons  who  were 
sentenced  to  death  were  hanged;  but  more  recently  the  law 
has  provided  for  death  by  electrocution — that  is,  by  causing 
an  electric  current  to  pass  through  the  body.  Many  persons 
believe  that  punishment  by  death  should  be  abolished  entirely. 
But  as  long  as  the  people  retain  this  form  of  punishment  for 
a  few  of  the  more  terrible  crimes,  the  use  of  the  electric  current 
is  certainly  more  humane  than  the  old  method  of  hanging. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Suppose  a  man  commits  a  crime  in  your  community,  who  would 
ordinarily  arrest  him?  Where  would  he  be  taken?  Would  he  ha\e  to 
prove  his  innocence? 

2.  Explain  how  he  might  be  released  on  bail.  Explain  how  he  might 
he  "held  for  the  grand  jury."  How  would  he  be  indicted?  What  would 
this  mean?     How  would  he  be  tried? 

3.  What  is  a  verdict?  A  conviction?  A  sentence?  What  is  the  right 
of  appeal?     Electrocution? 

4.  Find  out  where  the  courts  in  your  community  are  held.  Have  you 
ever  seen  a  court  room?     If  so,  describe  it. 

5.  Find  out  when  a  grand  jury  last  met  in  your  community.  Try  to 
find  someone  who  has  served  on  a  grand  jury,  and  ask  liim  how  the  busi- 
ness of  the  grand  jury  was  conducted. 

6.  Try  to  find  someone  who  has  served  on  a  jury.  Ask  him  to  de- 
scribe the  trial  to  you. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 
Many  years  ago  it  usually  happened  that  when  some  con- 
tagious disease  broke  out  in  a  community  it  spread  rapidly 
from  family  to  family.     This  was  known  as  an  epidemic. 
In  the  case  of  the  more  dangerous  diseases,  such  as  small- 
pox, diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  typhoid  fever,  many  per- 
sons would   die  during  these  epidemics.     There  were  also 
epidemics  of  less  dangerous  diseases,  such  as  whooping-cough, 
chicken  pox,  measles,  and  grip.     Now  the  chief  reason  why 
most  of  these  diseases  spread  with  such  rapidity  was  that  no 
effort  was  made  to  prevent  well  persons  from  coming  in  con- 
tact with  those  who  were  ill.     It  is  now  well  recognized  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  government  to  take  precautions  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.     For  example,  the 
requirement  that  school  children  shall  be  vaccinated  is  a  pre- 
caution that  is  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  most  dan- 
gerous of  all  of  these  diseases — smallpox.     But  the  govern- 
ment must  also  exercise  control  over  the  persons  who  are  so 
unfortunate  as  to  contract  contagious  diseases.     The  attempt 
is  made  to  prevent  well  persons  from  coming  in  contact  with 
these  unfortunates.     To  this  end  the  government  forbids  well 
persons  to  enter  a  house  in  which  one  of  these  diseases  pre- 
vails, and  signs  of  warning  are  often  required  to  be  posted 
conspicuously  upon  such  a  house.     The  children  of  the  family, 
if  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  disease,  are  prevented  from 
attending  school.     After  the  disease  is  over  the  government 
often  requires  that  the  premises  shall  be  thoroughly  fumi- 
gated.    In  the  case  of  very  dangerous  diseases,  such  as  small- 
pox, the  government  often  provides  a  special  hospital  and 

23 


24    GOVERNMENT  AND  POIJTKS  IN  VIRGINIA 

n(|uin'S  thai;  (lie  |),itic'nL  shall  he  rcnioved  to  this  camfulK' 
guarded  institution. 

It  is  not  easy  to  enforce  regulations  of  this  kind  and  i)eople 
often  object  to  the  restrictions  that  are  imposed  upon  them. 
When  we  compare,  however,  the  infrequency  with  which  wide- 
spread epidemics  now  occur  with  their  great  frequency  in  the 
past,  we  realize  the  necessity  of  control  by  the  government, 
and  we  ought  to  be  perfectly  willing  to  comply  with  those 
requirements  which  are  made  of  us. 

The  danger  from  the  spread  of  contagious  diseases  in  cities 
is  naturally  greater  than  it  is  in  farming  communities.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  people  in  cities  live  so  much  closer  to- 
gether. In  cities,  therefore,  the  government  enforces  quaran- 
tine regulations  with  greater  strictness  than  elsewhere. 

PROTECTION  A  GA  INST  IMP  URE  WA  TER.  I  n  farm- 
ing communities  the  water  that  is  needed  by  each  family 
is  almost  invariably  secured  from  a  private  well.  The  gov- 
ernment cannot  \indertake  to  protect  all  of  these  many  weils 
against  impurities.  Indi\'iduals  themselves  should,  however, 
exercise  great  care  in  this  matter.  For  instance,  a  person 
should  never  be  so  foolish  as  to  place  a  well  in  a  position 
where  the  filth  and  refuse  from  a  stable  will  drain  toward  the 
well.  It  is  now  an  established  fact  that  certain  diseases, 
such,  for  example,  as  typhoid  fever,  are  more  often  than  not 
caused  by  impurities  in  water  that  is  Uvsed  for  drinking.  A 
person  who  is  not  careful  in  properly  locating  and  covering 
his  well  puts  himself  and  his  family  in  constant  danger. 

In  the  cities,  where  water  is  almost  invariably  supplied  to 
the  homes  of  the  people  through  pipes  and  mains  that  are  laid 
under  the  streets  and  connected  with  the  houses,  the  govern- 
ment itself  is  responsible  for  the  purity  of  the  water.  Some- 
times a  city  can  secure  its  water  from  a  source  which  contains 
no  impurities.  Occasionally,  however,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
government  to  instal  a  plant  to  purify  the  water  before  it  is 
distributed    to    the    people.     These    plants    are    commonly 


THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


25 


known  as  filtration  plants.  In  cities  also  the  government  has 
to  be  careful  not  to  discharge  the  sewage  which  is  taken  from 
the  homes  of  the  people  in  any  place  that  is  likely  to  endanger 
the  purity  of  the  drinking  water  either  of  that  city  or  of  some 
neighboring  city.  In  many  cities  the  annual  number  of  cases 
of  typhoid  fever  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  changing  the 
place  of  the  disposal  of  sewage. 


THE  SETTLING  BASIN  NEAR  RICHMOND 
Here  the  muddy  water  of  the  James  River  is  cleared  before  being  distributed  to 

the  homes  of  the  people 


PROTECTION  AGAINST  IMPURE  MILK  AND 
FOODS.  For  the  most  part  there  is  really  no  reason  why  the 
people  who  live  in  farming  communities  should  run  any  great 
risk  of  endangering  their  health  by  the  use  of  milk  and  foods 
that  are  impure.  With  the  people  of  cities,  however,  it  is 
quite  otherwise.  They  are  dependent  upon  others  to  supply 
them  with  these  things.     Unless  the  government  undertakes 


26    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  protect  them,  they  are  more  or  less  helpless  to  protect  them- 
selves. For  example,  those  who  furnish  them  with  milk 
may  have  diluted  it  with  water  or  may  have  used  injurious 
chemicals  to  prevent  the  milk  from  spoiling.  Moreover,  the 
milk  may  have  been  handled  in  unclean  dairies.  It  ispossible, 
also,  to  handle  meats  and  vegetables  in  such  a  way  that  they 
are  not  actually  fit  to  be  used  as  foods.  Again,  a  considerable 
part  of  the  foods  that  are  used  by  the  people  are  now  supplied 
to  them  in  cans  and  in  sealed  packages;  and  it  is  often  im- 
possible to  tell  the  quality  and  cleanliness  of  such  foods  by 
merely  looking  at  them.  The  government  attempts  in  many 
ways  to  regulate  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  the  foods  that  are 
sold  to  the  people  of  the  state.  It  provides  inspection  for 
dairies,  creameries,  stables,  and  cows.  Its  officers  inspect 
also  such  places  as  restaurants,  bakeries,  meat  markets,  and 
slaughter  houses.  Samples  of  canned  and  package  foods  are 
collected  and  analyzed.  Even  feeds  for  stock  are  examined 
by  officers  of  the  government. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  UNTRAINED  PHYSI- 
CIANS AND  PHARMACISTS.  When  a  person  becomes 
ill  it  is  usually  necessary  for  him  to  have  proper  medicines 
and  medical  attention.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  danger  that  would 
arise  if  everyone  who  wished  to  become  a  physician  or  pharma- 
cist were  permitted  to  do  so.  Ignorant  persons  would  be  con- 
stantly furnishing  medicine  to  those  who  are  in  need  of  trained 
assistance.  In  order  to  provide  against  this  danger  the  gov- 
ernment requires  that  every  person  who  wishes  to  practise 
medicine  or  pharmacy  shall  pass  certain  examinations  to 
prove  his  knowledge  and  ability. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  INTOXICA  TING  LIQUORS. 
The  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  today  recognized  to  be 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  those  who  use  them,  as  well  as  pro- 
ductive of  other  unhappy  consequences.  For  a  long  time 
the  government  has  underte^ken  to  regulate  the  sale  of  in- 
toxicating   liquors    to    some    extent.     Formerly    in    Virginia 


THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


27 


each  community  was  permitted  to  decide  by  a  vote  of  its 
people  whether  Hquors  should  or  should  not  Ije  sold  in  the 
community.  Even  when  a  community  voted  in  favor  of  the 
sale  of  liquors  the  government  required  retailers  to  pay  con- 
siderable sums  of  money  for  this  privilege.  This  made  the 
liquor  more  expensive  and  therefore  tended  to  lessen  its  use. 
The  people  of  Virginia  have  now  decided  to  prohibit  entirely 
the  sale  of  liquor  within  the  state.  On  November  1,  1916, 
all  saloons  were  compelled  to  discontinue  operations. 


A  COTTON  MILL  AT  DANVILLE,   VIRGINIA 
Showing  a  modern  factory  built  with  due  regard  for  light,  air-space,  ventilation 

and  attractive  appearance 


SPECIAL  PROTECTION  OF  THE  HEALTH  OF  PER- 
SONS EMPLO  YED  IN  IND  USTR  Y.  I  n  Virginia  the  gov- 
ernment has  taken  certain  steps  looking  to  the  protection  of 
the  health  of  persons  who  labor  in  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. For  example,  the  government  has  limited  the  number 
of  hours  per  day  during  which  women,  and  children  under 


28    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

six  I  cell  yi-ais  of  a^c,  may  hv  employed.  Employers  are  rc- 
(luircd  to  arrange  their  work-rooms  so  that  they  shall  be  prop- 
erly lighted  and  ventilated.  They  are  required  also  to  keep 
their  establishments  in  a  sanitary  condition,  so  that  the  health 
of  their  employes  may  not  be  endangered.  It  is  probable 
that  in  the  course  of  time  the  government  will  prescribe 
additional  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the  health  of  those 
employed  in  industry.  The  government  regulates  matters 
of  this  kind  because  those  who  are  employed  are  often  unable 


A  DUMP  ON  THE  OUTSKIRTS  OF  A  CITY 
Where  ushes  and  rubbish   are  used  to  fill   up  a  ravine 

to  protect  themselves  against  employers  who,  either  from  in- 
difference or  because  of  their  unw  illingness  to  spend  a  little 
money  in  the  improvement  of  their  plant,  require  those  who 
work  for  them  to  labor  in  unhealtiiful  surroundings. 

ADDITIONAL  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  IN 
CITIES.  In  many  ways  the  go\'ernn^cnt  is  comj^clled  t^ 
take  special  precautions  for  the  protection  of  the  health  of 
those  who  live  in  cities.     The  streets  must  be  cleaned  and  in 


THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE  29 

the  summer  time  they  must  be  watered  to  keep  down  the 
dust.  Sewers  must  be  provided  to  carry  the  rain  water  off 
the  streets.  Garbage  and  refuse  must  be  carted  away  from 
the  homes  of  the  people.  A  sewer  system  must  be  provided 
in  order  that  sewage  may  be  carried  from  the  homes  of  the 
people  through  mains  and  pipes  laid  under  the  streets.  The 
government  also  often  regulates  and  inspects  the  plumbing 
in  houses,  because  diseases  have  often  been  traced  to  the  gases 
that  are  caused  by  bad  connections  with  the  sewer  system. 
In  cities,  moreoever,  the  government  will  not  permit  a  person 
to  endanger  the  health  of  others  by  maintaining  what  is 
known  as  a  nuisance.  For  example,  a  person  cannot  keep  his 
stable  in  a  filthy  condition.  Nor  can  he  maintain  a  slaughter 
house  or  a  fertilizer  factory  in  a  residence  district. 

In  numerous  other  ways  does  the  government  attempt  to 
promote  and  protect  the  health  of  the  people  who  live  in 
cities.  As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  note,  this  is  be- 
cause the  people  in  cities  live  so  close  together  that  the  acts 
of  one  person  are  very  apt  to  endanger  the  health  of  others 
in  a  community'. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1 .  What  means  are  provided  in  your  school  for  the  protection  of  health? 
How  is  yovir  schoolroom  ventilated,  and  why?  How  is  it  heated?  Is  it 
well  lighted?  Do  the  school  authorities  require  you  to  be  vaccinated? 
Where  does  your  drinking  water  come  from?  When  are  children  prevented 
from  attending  school  on  account  of  disease?  Who  prevents  them,  and 
why? 

2.  What  measures  does  your  city  take  to  make  the  community  more 
healthful?  Is  there  a  sewerage  system?  Are  the  streets  kept  clean? 
Are  contagious  diseases  quarantined?  What  about  the  drinking  water? 
The  garbage?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  what  measures  are  taken  to  protect 
you  against  imjjure  milk  and  foods.  Are  the  dairies  and  creameries, 
slaughter  houses,  butcher  shoj's  and  markets  inspected  by  the  government? 

;5.     Why  is  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  prohibited  in  Virginia? 
4.     Ask  some  manufacturer  what  measures  the  government  requires 
him  to  take  to  protect  the  health  of  his  employes. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

THE  MEANING  OF  PROPERTY.  It  was  pointed  out 
in  the  first  ciiapter  that  nearly  everybody  desires  to  earn 
money  in  order  that  he  may  purchase  thi  '^s  which  he  needs 
to  make  him  and  his  family  comfortable."  We  all  know  that 
the  land  and  houses  in  the  community  are  owned  by  certain 
individuals  who  have  usually  either  earned  money  and  bought 
this  property  or  have  inherited  it  from  others.  The  land  and 
houses  are  the  property  of  the  persons  who  own  them;  but 
they  are  not  the  only  kind  of  property.  People  also  own 
property  that  can  be  moved  around,  such  as  horses  and  cattle, 
clothing  and  jewelry,  books  and  furniture.  Indeed  money 
itself  is  only  a  special  kind  of  property,  because,  as  everybody 
knows,  we  can  exchange  money  for  various  kinds  of  property. 

Everybody  who  owns  property  has  the  right  to  be  protected 
in  it,  and  the  government  hcl]is  in  many  ways  to  furnish  us 
with  the  protection  which  we  need  in  this  matter. 

PROTECTION  OF  LANDS  AND  BUILDINGS.  Of 
course  it  is  usually  impossible  for  one  person  to  steal  the  land 
or  the  house  that  belongs  to  another,  for  it  is  impossible  to 
hide  such  things  or  to  carry  them  away.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, two  or  more  persons  each  claim  a  certain  piece  of  land  or 
a  certain  house.  The  government  assists  in  settling  disputes 
of  this  kind  by  providing  that  whenever  a  piece  of  land  is  sold 
or  given  l)y  one  person  to  another,  this  fact  shall  be  recorded 
in  an  office  which  the  go\ernment  provides.  The  property 
that  is  thus  sold  or  transferred  must  be  accurately  described 
in  this  record  which  the  government  keeps.  This  system  of 
recording  transfers  of  land  and  houses  does  not  always  pre- 
vent disputes  as  to  ownership;  but  if  the  government  did  not 

30 


THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


31 


provide  some  such  system,  it  is  certain  that  such  disputes 
would  be  far  more  numerous  than  they  are. 

PROTECTION  OF  PROPERTY  AGAINST  ROBBERY. 
In  every  community  there  are  usually  a  few  people  who  have 
no  regard  for  the  property  rights  of  others.  They  cannot 
ordinarily  steal  lands  and  buildings,  but  they  can  steal  other 
forms  of  property;  and  they  do  not  hesitate  to  do  so  whenever 
it  is  possible.  The  same  officers  that  protect  persons  against 
the  violence  of  othf^rs — the  constables,  the  sheriff,  and  the 
police — are  also  required  to  protect  property  from  thieves. 


A  MOTOR  HOOK-AND-LADDER  TRUCK 


In  spite  of  the  watchfulness  of  these  officers,  and  especially 
of  the  police  in  cities,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  every  person, 
whether  in  a  city  or  in  a  farming  community,  has  the  right  to 
protect  his  own  property  from  burglars  if  he  is  able  to  do  so, 
robberies  are  sometimes  committed.  The  government  then 
makes  every  effort  to  arrest  the  robber  and  bring  him  to 
punishment  and  if  possible  to  restore  the  stolen  goods  to  its 
owner. 


32    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  \'IRGINIA 

It  must  not  he  thought  that  those  who  break  into  other  peo- 
ple's houses  are  the  only  thieves  that  there  are.  Sometimes 
men  in  high  positions,  who  are  greatly  respected  in  the  com- 
munity, yield  to  the  temptation  to  steal  money  which  happens 
to  be  in  their  care  but  which  belongs  to  others.  These  men 
are  even  worse  than  common  thieves,  for  they  have  usually 
had  better  opportunities  and  better  training.  The  govern- 
ment, of  course,  provides  for  their  punishment. 

PROTECTION  OF  PROPERTY  AGAINST  FIRE.  It  is 
the  duty  of  every  person  to  use  precautions  to  prevent  the 
starting  of  fires.  In  spite  of  such  precautions,  fires  sometimes 
occur.  In  farming  communities  it  is  manifestly  impossible 
for  the  government  to  provide  any  protection  against  fires. 
But  in  the  larger  cities  the  government  establishes  organized 
fire  departments,  with  fire  engines,  hose  wagons,  and  hook- 
and-ladder  wagons,  and  with  a  force  of  firemen  to  operate 
this  apparatus.  At  various  places  throughout  the  city  there 
are  call  boxes  at  which  a  fire  alarm  may  be  turned  in.  'I  his 
notifies  the  fire  department  that  a  fire  has  started  in  a  cer- 
tain section  of  the  city.  Immediately  the  firemen  hasten  to 
the  scene  of  the  fire  and  use  every  effort  to  put  it  out.  On  the 
street  corners  there  are  plugs  to  which  hose  can  be  attached, 
and  the  fire  engines  pump  strong  streams  of  water  that  are 
thrown  upon  the  burning  building.  In  this  way  does  the 
government  seek  to  protect  the  property  of  the  people  from 
destruction  by  fires.  An  efficient  fire  department  is  very 
necessary  in  every  city,  for,  since  the  houses  are  built  close 
together,  it  might  easily  happen  that  a  fire  that  started  in  one 
person's  house  would  spread  rapidly  and  destroy  the  property 
of  many  other  persons. 

In  villages  and  small  cities  the  government  itself  does  not 
often  maintain  a  regular  fire  department.  Instead  of  this,  a 
number  of  men  in  the  community  usually  band  together  in 
volunteer  organizations.  These  organizations  purchase  hose 
and  other  equipment  for  the  purpose  of  fighting  fires.     Such 


THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


33 


organizations  sIkmiUI  be  luartiK'  supported  by  the  peop)le  of 
these  communities,  for  they  really  take  the  place  of  the  gov- 
ernment itself  in  performing  this  service. 

THE  RIGHTS  OF  THE  COMMUNITY  IN  THE  PROP- 
ERTY OF  INDIVIDUALS.  In  a  general  way  we  may  do 
whatever  we  choose  with  our  property  so  long  as  we  obey  the 
laws  of  the  community.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  the  govern- 
ment, in  the  interest  of  the  entire  community,  regulates  in  a 
number  of  ways  the  uses  to  which  we  may  put  our  property. 


AN  ELECTRIC  LINE  RUNNING  BETWEEN  RICHMOND  AND  ASHLAND 
This  is  one  of  the  many  railways  that  are  regulated  by  the  government 

In  farming  communities,  for  example,  the  government  often 
requires  that  the  individual  shall  erect  fences  to  prevent  his 
cattle  from  straying  on  other  people's  land.  In  cities  the 
government  prevents  a  person  from  using  his  property  for 
carrying  on  an  objectionable  business  in  the  midst  of  the 
homes  of  the  people.  Frequently,  also,  the  government  pro- 
hibits the  erection  of  a  wooden  building  in  the  heart  of  the 
city  in  order  to  lessen  the  danger  from  fires.     In  most  cities. 


34    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

also,  the  government  imposes  certain  regulations  upon  the  con- 
struction of  buildings  in  order  to  insure  their  safety.  Again, 
if  a  person  digs  a  hole  upon  his  property  close  to  a  city  street 
he  is  required  to  protect  it  so  as  not  to  endanger  the  lives  of 
those  who  are  using  the  street.  In  this  and  many  other  ways 
the  government  places  restrictions  upon  the  uses  of  private 
property. 

Further  than  this,  the  government  reserves  the  right  to 
take  our  property  entirely  from  us  whenever  this  property  is 
needed  for  the  c(jmmunity  as  a  whole.  If,  for  example,  the 
government  wishes  to  open  a  road  or  a  street  through  the 
property  we  own,  or  to  construct  a  park  or  a  school  or  other 
public  building  upon  our  property,  the  government  has  the 
power  to  take  this  property  from  us  in  case  we  refuse  to  sell  it. 
In  such  instances  the  government  is  required  to  pay  us  a  just 
amount  of  money  for  the  property  that  is  taken.  This  power 
of  the  government  to  take  a  man's  property  from  him  is  called 
the  power  of  eminent  domain.  The  government  often  confers 
this  power  upon  railroad  companies  so  that  individual  owners 
of  property  may  not,  by  refusing  to  sell,  stand  in  the  way  of 
the  building  of  a  railroad. 

The  government  also  takes  property  away  from  the  people 
of  the  community  in  the  form  of  the  taxes,  which  must  be  col- 
lected for  the  support  of  the  government.  The  individual 
who  pays  taxes  receives  compensation  only  in  the  form  of  the 
many  things  which  the  government  does  for  the  community 
as  a  whole.     (See  Chapter  XVII.) 

SPECIAL  RIGHTS  OF  THE  COMMUNITY  IN  CER- 
TAIN KINDS  OF  PROPERTY.  The  people  as  a  whole 
are  peculiarly  dependent  upon  some  of  the  property  that  is 
owned  by  private  persons.  We  as  individuals  are  not  often 
dependent  in  any  unusual  way  upon  the  property  which  an- 
other person  may  own  in  a  shoe  store  or  a  dry-goods  store. 
If  we  cannot  be  suited  at  one  such  store  we  go  to  another,  or 
we  order  our  shoes  or  our  dry-goods  from  a  distant  city.     But 


THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE      35 

when  we  desire  to  go  on  a  journey,  we  are  dependent  upon  the 
property  which  other  persons  own  in  a  railroad;  for  there  is 
often  only  ofie  railroad  that  we  can  make  use  of.  So  also  we 
are  usually  dependent  in  a  peculiar  way  upon  the  property 
which  other  people  own  in  a  telephone  or  telegraph  company. 
The  people  of  cities  are  likewise  dependent  upon  the  property 
of  street  car  companies,  and  of  water,  gas,  and  electric  light 
companies;  for  more  often  than  not  there  is  only  one  company 
that  supplies  each  of  these  services  to  the  community. 

Now  in  some  instances  the  government  itself  owns  the  water- 
works, the  gas  works,  or  the  electric  plant.  But  this  is  not 
always  the  case.  Moreover,  in  no  community  in  Virginia 
does  the  government  own  the  railroads,  the  telephone  and  tele- 
graph services,  or  the  street  cars.  These  are  owned  by  private 
persons  who  seek  to  make  as  much  money  as  possible  out  of 
them.  The  government  recognizes,  however,  that  the  people 
have  a  very  special  interest  in  the  property  that  is  used  in 
these  various  services.  It  reserves  the  right,  therefore,  to 
regulate  property  of  this  kind  in  a  special  way.  Thus  the 
government  usually  fixes  the  rates  that  may  be  charged  by  the 
persons  who  furnish  these  services  and  imposes  many  require- 
ments upon  them  in  the  interest  of  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  the  public.  The  government  cannot,  however, 
deprive  them  of  the  right  to  earn  a  reasonable  income  from 
the  property  in  which  they  have  invested  their  money. 

HOW  THE  GOVERNMENT  IMPROVES  THE  PROP- 
ERTY OF  THE  PEOPLE.  It  is,  of  course,  the  business  of 
every  person  who  owns  property  to  do  whatever  he  can  to  in- 
crease its  value.  To  this  end  he  should  cultivate  his  property 
so  as  to  make  it  as  productive  as  possible.  If  he  owns  prop- 
erty in  a  city,  he  usually  erects  a  building  upon  it,  either  for 
his  own  home  or  business,  or  with  a  view  to  renting  the  build- 
ing to  some  other  person  for  profit.  The  government,  how- 
ever, also  does  many  things  which  increase  the  value  of  the 
property  owned   by   individuals.     When,   for   example,    the 


36    GO\  KRiNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  \  IRGINIA 

government  constructs  a  road,  or  grades  and  paves  a  street,  or 
lays  out  and  beautifies  a  park,  the  adjacent  property  is  often 
made  more  valuable  by  reason  of  this  improvement.  Be- 
cause of  this  fact  the  government  sometimes  requires  the 
owners  of  the  adjacent  property  to  pay  the  wliole  or  a  part  of 
the  cost  of  such  improvements.  When  the  government  makes 
charges  of  this  kind  against  the  owners  of  private  property, 
these  charges  are  known  as  "special  assessments."  If  a  per- 
son's property  is  increased  in  value  because  of  some  improve- 
ment undertaken  by  the  government,  it  seems  only  fair  and 
just  that  he  should  pay  for  that  increase  of  value,  even  though 
the  improvement  is  also  of  benefit  to  other  people  in  the 
community. 

THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT.  In  every 
community  the  government  itself  owns  some  of  the  property. 
Thus  the  rivers,  most  of  the  roads,  and  many  of  the  bridges 
belong  to  the  government.  So  also  in  cities  the  government 
owns  the  streets,  the  alleys,  and  the  parks.  Moreover,  the 
government  owns  certain  public  buildings,  such  as  school- 
houses,  courthouses,  jails  and  prisons,  poorhouses,  city  halls, 
and  public  libraries.  The  property  which  the  government 
owns  really  belongs  to  the  entire  community,  for  it  is  used  for 
the  benefit  of  all  of  the  pccple. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Mention  some  of  the  property  that  you  possess  in  the  schoolroom. 
How  docs  this  property  help  you?  Mention  some  of  the  property  owned 
by  the  school.  How  does  this  property  assist  you?  Who  supplies  the 
school  property?  Are  you  protected  in  the  possession  of  your  books  and 
])encils?     Who  protects  you? 

2.  Is  money  jjroperty?  Why?  Wiiat  business  is  your  father  engaged 
in?  Why  does  he  eufiage  in  business?  Mention  some  of  the  i)roi)erty  in 
your  home.     To  whom  docs  it  belong? 

:i.  ^\  ho  owns  tlie  land  in  your  couuiiunity?  How  may  one  man  trans- 
fer a  piece  of  land  to  anotiier?  In  case  of  dispute  over  the  ownership  of  a 
l)iecc  of  land,  who  settles  it? 


.  THE  PROPERTY  OF  THE  PEOPLE  37 

4.  What  means  does  your  community  afford  for  })r()tecti()n  against 
burglaries?  Who  arrests  tlie  burglar  and  what  is  done  with  him?  Why 
do  police  patrol  the  city  streets?  Why  are  streets  lighted?  Why  is 
there  no  patrol  in  1  he  count  ry  districts?     How  is  the  police  force  organized? 

5.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  fire  department  in  your  com- 
munity. A\'hat  is  its  purpose?  Who  supports  it?  Have  you  ever  seen 
a  large  fire?  How  is  an  alarm  turned  in?  Explain  how  the  dejjartment 
operates.     Why  are  there  no  fire  departments  in  farming  communities? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  government  restricts  us 
in  the  use  of  our  property?     Why  are  these  restrictions  imposed? 

7.  Why  does  the  government  impose  special  restrictions  upon  the  per- 
sons who  own  the  railways,  and  the  telegraph,  telephone,  water,  gas, 
and  electric  light  services? 

8.  Do  you  remember  a  road  or  street  ever  being  ojjened  in  your  com- 
munity across  some  man's  property?  Or  do  you  remember  a  school- 
house  or  other  public  building  ever  being  built?  If  you  do  not  know  of 
any  such  instance,  perhajjs  your  parents  or  teacher  can  tell  you  of  one. 
Who  opened  this  road  or  street?  Or  who  built  this  building?  How  did 
the  government  get  the  property?  Was  the  former  owner  justly  paid? 
What  is  this  power  of  the  government  to  take  property  called? 

9.  What  property  does  the  government  own  in  your  community?  How 
did  the  government  get  it?  Why  is  this  property  owned  by  the  govern- 
ment? 


449654 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  FARMS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

PROMOTION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  INTERESTS.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  so  large  a  part  of  the  people  of  Virginia 
live  in  farming  communities,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  gov- 
ernment should  undertake  to  assist  in  developing  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  the  people.  In  many  wa>"s  the  govern- 
ment endeavors  to  extend  protection  to  farmers  and  to  fur- 
nish them  with  much  valuable  information  and  assistance. 

INSPECTION  OF  FERTILIZERS.  Every  farmer  is 
dependent  upon  good  fertilizers.  It  is  not  always  possible, 
however,  for  the  farmer  to  tell  whether  the  fertilizer  that  is 
offered  to  him  contains  the  things  that  his  soil  needs  or  the 
things  that  are  claimed  for  it  by  the  fertilizer  manufacturer. 
This  requires  a  chemical  analysis  which  the  farmer  is  not  often 
able  to  make.  In  order  to  protect  farmers  against  dishonesty 
in  the  matter  of  fertilizers  the  government  provides  inspectors 
who  secure  samples  of  fertilizers  in  various  parts  of  the  state 
and  forward  them  to  Richmond  for  examination.  The 
farmers  themselv^es  may  also  require  that  samples  be  sent  on 
for  examination.  If  upon  examination  the  government  finds 
that  a  sample  does  not  come  up  to  the  claims  of  the  manu- 
facturer, the  manufacturer  may  be  punished,  and  the  farmer 
who  has  purchased  any  of  the  fertilizer  in  question  may  re- 
cover the  amount  that  he  paid  out. 

SEED  INSPECTION.  The  government  requires  that 
those  who  sell  seed  to  farmers  shall  mark  the  packages  con- 
taining the  seeds  so  as  to  indicate  their  quality.  Any  farmer 
may  send  to  Richmond  a  sample  of  seeds  which  he  is  about 
to  purchase  and  have  them  examined.  Moreover,  the  officers 
of  the  government  themselves  take  samples  of  seeds  in  various 

38 


GIRLS*  CANNING  CLUBS  EXHIBIT  AT  THE  STATE  FAIR 


BOYS'  CORN  CLUB  PRIZE  WINNERS  IN  PITTSYLVANIA  COUNTY 


40    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 


parts  of  the  State  and  analyze  them  to  discover  impurities 
and  weed  seeds. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  CROP  PESTS.  The  govern- 
ment undertakes  to  furnish  information  to  farmers  on  the 
subject  of  insects  and  other  pests  that  attack  orchard  trees 
and  crops.  Inspectors  are  also  appointed  and  are  given  the 
power  to  destroy  any  pest  that  is  about  to  gain  headway- 


STATE  LIME   QUARRY,  STAUNTON,   VIRGINIA 
The  agricultural  lime  taken  from  this  quarry  is  sold  to  Virginia  farmers  at  cost 

in  this  or  that  farming  community.  The  government  also 
inspects  and  regulates  the  nurseries  at  which  orchard  trees 
are  grown  for  sale. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  DISEASES  TO  CATTLE. 
The  governn^ent  maintains  at  Blacksburg  an  officer  known  as 
the  State  Veterinarian  whose  duty  it  is  to  furnish  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  diseases  of  cattle.  He  has  the  power  to 
make  inspections  and  in  case  he  discovers  an  infectious  dis- 


THE  FARMS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


41 


ease  he  may  establish  a  local  quarantine  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  disease  to  other  cattle  in  the  community  or  to  other 
parts  of  the  state.  The  railroad  com.panies  are  also  required 
by  the  government  to  clean  and  disinfect  cattle  cars,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  possible  spread  of  cattle  diseases. 

EXPERIMENTAL  FARMS.  At  Blacksburg  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute  there  is  main- 
tained what  is  known  as  the  State  Experiment  Station.  This 
station  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  making  investigations  into 
the  various  kinds  of  seeds,  fertilizers,  soils,  and  methods  of 
cultivation,  in  order  that  farmers  may  receive  reliable  informa- 


A  FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  TRAIN 

tion  and  instruction  upon  these  subjects.  In  addition  to  this 
important  station,  experiment  stations  are  also  conducted 
under  government  control  at  Appomattox,  Axton,  Bowling 
Green,  Chatham,  Louisa,  Rustsberg,  Saxe,  Norfolk,  and 
Staunton.  A  large  amount  of  valuable  information  is  gath- 
ered from  the  experiments  that  are  conducted  at  these  stations. 
This  information  is  furnished  to  the  farmers  who  are  interested 
in  improving  their  methods  of  cultivation. 


42    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS.  The  Virginia  Agricultural 
and  Polytechnic  Institute  located  at  Blacksburg  offers  to  the 
young  men  of  Virginia  the  opportunity  to  secure  a  four-year 
college  course  in  agriculture.  It  also  conducts  in  the  winter 
season  a  brief  course  of  six  weeks  for  practical  farmers.  This 
Institute  is  supported  by  the  government.  Teachers  are  also 
sent  out  from  this  Institute  to  conduct  what  are  known  as 
"movable  schools  of  agriculture,"  which  last  from  three  to 
ten  days,  and  to  carry  on  demonstration  work  on  experi- 
mental plots  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  In  the  spring  and 
autumn  the  government  also  sends  lecturers  on  special  trains 
throughout  the  state  to  address  farmers  on  subjects  of  in- 
terest to  them. 

In  each  of  the  ten  congressional  districts  of  the  state  the 
government  maintains  an  agricultural  and  industrial  depart- 
ment in  at  least  one  high  school.  The  government  also 
supervises  "boys'  corn  clubs"  and  "girls'  canning  clubs"  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  the  national  Department  of  Agri- 
culture at  Washington. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  If  yoii  live  in  a  fiirniing  community  find  out  how  the  farmers  know 
that  the  fertilizer  which  they  buy  has  been  inspected  by  the  government. 
Find  out  whether  tlie  farmers  in  yov:r  community  ever  have  the  seeds 
whicli  they  purchase  examined  by  the  government.  Jf  so,  find  out  what 
luis  been  the  result  of  these  examinations. 

2.  Has  there  ever  been  an  epidemic  of  disease  aiiioiig  cattle  in  your 
conunimity?  If  so,  wh;it  did  the  government  do  to  jircvent  the  spread 
of  sucii  disease? 

3.  If  there  is  an  agricultural  experiment  station  near  you  find  out, 
if  you  can,  what  work  it  is  doing.  Has  there  ever  been  in  your  community 
a  movable  school  of  agriculture  or  a  farmers'  institute  train?  Or  has  the 
government  carried  on  any  demonstration  work?  If  so,  find  out,  if  you 
can,  about  these  activities  of  the  government. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

THE  REASON  FOR  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  Back  in  the 
year  1671  Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia  wrote:  "I  thank  God 
there  are  no  free  schools  or  printirig  presses  and  I  hope  we 
shall  not  have  any  these  hundred  years."  What  did  he  mean 
by  this  astounding  remark?  He  meant  simply  this — that 
people  can  be  subjected  to  tyranny  and  oppression  by  the 
government  only  when  they  are  kept  ignorant.  Whenever 
people  begin  to  read  and  study  and  to  think  for  themselves, 
they  begin  to  understand  that  they  have  certain  rights  which 
have  to  be  protected.  They  then  realize  that  they  are  capable 
of  governing  themselves  and  of  determining,  through  the  gov- 
ernment which  they  themselves  establish,  what  right  sthey  wish 
to  enjoy  as  individuals,  and  what  services  their  government 
shall  provide  for  the  community  as  a  whole. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  VIR- 
GINIA .  Of  all  the  statesmen  who  helped  to  found  the  Ameri- 
can nation,  Thomas  Jefferson  had  perhaps  the  greatest  faith 
in  the  ability  of  the  people  to  govern  themselves.  He  realized, 
however,  that  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  the  masses 
of  the  people  should  be  provided  wnth  means  by  which  they 
might  improve  their  intelligence.  He  early  proposed,  there- 
fore, that  both  primary  and  high  schools  should  be  established 
by  the  government  throughout  the  State  of  Virginia,  and  that 
a  university  should  also  be  established  at  the  top  of  this  system 
of  free  education.     His  plan  was  never  fully  carried  out. 

As  early  as  1808  a  sum  of  money  known  as  the  Literary 
Fund  was  set  aside  by  the  government  of  Virginia  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  children  of  the  state.  It  was  not  a  large 
fund,  and  the  people  for  many  years  regarded  it  as  a  public 

43 


44    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

charity.  Even  when  they  were  too  poor  to  pay  for  the  edu- 
cation of  their  children,  many  of  them  were  too  proud  to 
accept  the  help  of  the  government.  W'ilh  the  money  fnmi 
this  fund,  however,  as  well  as  with  money  contributed  by 
private  persons,  many  schools  were  established  in  Virginia. 
These  schools  were  known  as  "free"  schools  because  children 
could  attend  them  without  the  payment  of  tuition. 

It  was  only  after  the  War  Between  the  States  that  a  real 
system  of  public  education  was  established  in  Virginia.     The 


SUFFOLK  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL 
A  splendid  modern  school  building 


old  free  schools  that  existed  in  various  parts  of  the  state  were 
made  a  part  of  the  present  system  when  it  was  first  established 
in  the  year  1870. 

The  northern  states  were  far  in  advance  of  Virginia  and  the 
other  southern  states  in  establishing  public  school  systems. 
There  were  two  principal  reasons  for  this.  In  the  first  place, 
the  people  of  the  northern  states  settled  for  the  most  part  on 
small  farms  in  communities  that  were  known  as  towns,  or 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


45 


townships.  They  lived  fairly  close  together,  and  it  was 
comparatively  easy  for  the  children  to  attend  the  schools  that 
were  provided.  In  Virginia,  however,  the  people  settled  for 
the  most  part  on  large  plantations,  and  these  were  widely 
scattered  over  the  state.  Even  if  the  government  had,  in 
early  days,  attempted  to  establish  schools,  it  would  have  been 
difficult  for  the  children  in  the  outlying  districts  to  attend 
them.     This  was  one  of  the  reasons,  then,  why  the  establish- 


CHESTERFIELD  COUNTY  SCHOOL  BOARD  AT  LUNCHEON 
Served  by  the  domestic  science  class  of  the  Chester  Agricultural  High  School 


ment  of  systems  of  public  education  was  so  long  delayed  in 
the  South. 

In  the  second  place,  there  was  in  Virginia  and  the  rest  of 
the  South  a  large  population  of  negro  slaves.  This  fact 
caused  society  to  be  divided  into  three  classes.  There  was, 
first,  the  wealthy  class  of  land  owners  and  slave  owners,  to- 
gether with  the  professional  men  of  the  state,   such  as  min- 


46    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

isters,  lawyers,  physicians,  and  office-holders.  Next,  there 
was  a  class  of  poor  white  people  consisting  of  mechanics, 
artisans,  and  laborers.  Last,  there  was  the  slave  population. 
Now  the  government  of  Virginia  was  almost  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  wealthy  class.  The  people  of  this  class  had 
money  and  the  opportunity  to  provide  education  for  their 
children  by  other  means  than  at  the  expense  of  the  public. 
They  did  not,  therefore,  see  the  necessity  for  general  public 
education  in  order  that  all  the  people  might  share  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  government.     In  the  northern  states,  on  the  other 


A  "CONSOLIDATED"  SCHOOL  IN  HENRICO  COUNTY 
Showing  school  wagons  for  the  transportation  of  pupils 

hand,  there  were  few  negro  slaves,  and  society  was  not  divided 
so  strictly  into  classes.  This,  then,  was  another  reason  why 
the  people  of  the  South  failed  to  establish  systems  of  education 
at  an  early  date. 

PRIVATE  AND  PUBLIC  EDUCATION.  We  have 
long  since  ceased  to  regard  the  public  schools  as  a  charity 
established  by  the  government.  It  is  true  that  some  persons 
continue  to  pay  for  the  education  of  their  children  at  private 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


47 


schools.  But  many  persons  who  can  afford  to  pay  for  the 
education  of  their  children  nevertheless  prefer  to  send  them 
to  the  schools  provided  by  the  government.  It  is  for  each 
family  to  decide  whether  the  children  of  the  family  shall  re- 
ceive their  education  at  a  public  or  at  a  private  school.  The 
public  schools  are  open  to  the  children  of  the  community  re- 
gardless of  whether  their  parents  can  afford  to  pay  for  their 
education  or  not.  It  is  simply  a  fact  that  in  Virginia,  as  well 
as  throughout  the  United  States,  the  vast  majority  of  chil- 
dren attend  public  lather  than  private  schools. 


LOUISA  GRADED   AND  HIGH  SCHOOL 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  family  to  see  that  the  children  are 
sent  to  school,  even  though  they  may  sometimes  be  needed 
at  home.  In  some  states  of  the  Union  the  government  abso- 
lutely requires  that  children  of  a  certain  age  shall  attend  some 
school,  either  public  or  private.  Laws  of  this  kind  are,  how- 
ever, very  difficult  to  enforce.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  such  laws 
ought  not  to  be  necessary.  The  duty  of  parents  in  this  matter 
is  so  clear  that  the  government  ought  not  to  be  under  obliga- 
tion to  compel  them  to  fulfill  this  duty. 


48    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  P  UBLIC  SCHOOLS.  The 
building  up  of  an  adequate  school  system  by  the  government 
is  no  small  undertaking.  Year  by  >ear  the  schools  of  Virginia 
are  being  improved  in  many  ways.  It  is  the  intention  of  the 
govcrnm.ent  to  place  within  easy  reach  of  every  child  in  the 
state  a  mcII  equipped  graded  school  and  to  establish  in  each 
county  at  least  one  high  school.  But  the  government  faces 
many  difficulties  in  accomplishing  this  object.  In  the  first 
place,  the  necessary  money  is  not  always  easy  to  secure. 
Some  communities  are  very  poor.     The  people  object  to  giving 


rUREE-ROOM     GRADED    SCHOOL     FOR    COLORED     PUPILS,     NOTTOWAY 

COUNTY 

a  great  deal  cf  money  for  the  establishment  and  support  of 
schools.  Ill  the  second  place,  the  children  who  live  in  farm- 
ing communities  are  often  widely  scattered.  In  order  for 
every  child  to  have  a  school  in  his  immediate  neighborhood 
it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  a  very  large  number  of  small 
schools  with  poorly  paid  teachers.  In  recent  years  the  gov- 
ernment has  discontinued  many  small  schools  and  established 
in  their  place  a  single  consolidated  school.  The  government 
has  then  provided  school  wagons  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


49 


the  children  to  and  from  their  homes.  These  consoHdated 
schools  are  usually  far  superior  to  the  small  schools  which  they 
replace. 

Another  difficulty  which  the  government  has  to  face  in  the 
development  of  a  system  of  schools  is  due  to  the  fact  that  our 
population  is  divided  into  two  races.  There  must  be  separate 
schools  for  each  race,  and  the  expense  of  maintaining  schools 
is  thus  greatly  increased. 


OUTDOOR  CANNING  DEMONSTRATION 
Summer  Normal  School,   Harrisonburg,   Virginia 


In  spite  of  these  and  other  difficulties  which  the  government 
faces,  a  great  deal  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of  de- 
veloping the  public  schools  of  Virginia.  The  responsibility 
for  supporting  the  schools  rests  largely  upon  the  people  of 
each  community.  These  people  should  take  interest  and 
pride  in  the  proper  development  of  their  schools.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  state  as  a  whole,  however,  recognizes  that  it 
must  assist  in  building  up  the  school  system.     It  therefore 


50    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

appropriates  a  part  of  the  money  that  is  needed  for  the  main- 
tenance of  schools.  It  is  unnecessary  at  this  point  to  de- 
scribe how  the  school  system  is  organized  and  governed.  It 
is  sufficient  to  remark  that  in  very  many  ways  the  govern- 
ment attempts  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  people  in  public 
education  and  exerts  its  constant  influence  for  the  improve- 
ment of  school  conditions. 


JMp/t  1 

I 

EHMRH^^^^^H^                          '"^^ 

1 

^^1 

iwm  tmini 

UNIVERSITY  OFVIRGINIA 
View  of  the  "Lawn,"  looking  toward  the  library 


THE  SCHOOLS  IN  CITIES.  In  cities  the  schools  are 
usually  better  equipped  than  they  are  in  farming  communities. 
This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  property  in  cities  is 
more  valuable  than  it  is  in  farming  communities  and  there 
are  more  wealthy  people.  It  is  easier,  therefore,  to  get  money 
for  the  support  of  the  schools.  Moreover,  because  of  the 
larger  number  of  children  who  live  close  together,  it  is  less 
difficult  to  establish  schools  within  walking  distance  of  the 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


51 


children.     In  every  city  it  is  possible  also  to  maintain  at  least 
one  high  school. 

GOVERNMENT  ASSISTANCE  FOR  HIGHER  EDU- 
CATION. In  addition  to  the  common  schools  and  high 
schools,  the  government  of  Virginia  makes  some  provision  for 
higher  education  in  colleges,  institutes,  and  universities.  The 
University  of  Virginia  at  Charlottesville  was  established  in 
1818,  through  the  efforts  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  was 
formally  opened  in  1825.     Every  boy  in  Virginia  can  secure 


A  VACATION  SUMMER  SCHOOL 


at  this  University  his  college  education  without  the  payment 
of  any  tuition.  At  Farmville,  Harrisonburg,  Fredericksburg, 
and  Radford  the  government  maintains  normal  schools  for 
the  education  of  women  who  expect  to  become  teachers.  The 
government  lends  its  support  also  to  the  Virginia  Military 
Institute  founded  at  Lexington  in  1839,  the  Virginia  Poly- 
technic Institute  founded  at  Blacksburg  in  1872,  William  and 
Mary  College  founded  at  Williamsburg  in  1693,  and  the  Medi- 
cal College  of  Virginia  at  Richmond.     The  government  also 


52    r.OVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

inainlaiiis  lor  the  colored  teachers  a  normal  and  industrial 
school  at  Petersburg.  For  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  the 
blind  the  government  has  established  a  school  for  white  people 
at  Staunton  and  one  fcr  colored  people  at  Newport  News. 

THE  SCIIOOLIIOUSE  AND  THE  COMMUNITY.  It 
seems  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  advantages  which  we  as 
individuals   derive    from    the    schools.     The    training   which 


^PI^^^^^^^^^^^WtI^^^P* 

'  •'^-  •       ■  '  -'i 

iifp-i  litii  •  ^ 

STUDENTS  OF  VIRGINIA  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE 
In  charge  of  prize  dairy  cows 

pupils  receive  in  the  schools  and  the  knowledge  which  they 
acquire  assist  them  in  countless  ways  toward  making  a  success 
of  their  lives.  The  schools  increase  our  usefulness  to  our- 
selves, our  families,  and  the  community  in  which  we  live. 
People  do  not  always  realize  that  the  prosperity  of  a  par- 
ticular community  is  often  advanced  by  a  good  school.  It  is 
a  fact,  however,   that  when  families  with  children  desire  to 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF    THE  PEOPLE 


53 


move  from  one  community  to  another,  they  are  often  very 
particular  to  inquire  about  the  school  facilities.  They  realize 
how  desirable  it  is  that  their  children  should  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  attending  an  up-to-date  school;  and  they  are  un- 
willing to  make  their  home  in  any  place  where  this  opportunity 
is  denied  to  them. 

In  recent  years  a  movement  has  been  going  on  in  many  com- 
munities to  use  the  schoolhouses  not  only  for  the  teaching  of 
children  but  also  for  other  community  or  neighborhood  pur- 


HANDLEY  PUBLIC  LIBRARY  AT  WINCHESTER,  VA. 

poses.  Since  the  schoolhouse  belongs  to  the  community, 
there  is  really  no  reason  why  the  grown  people  of  the  com- 
munity should  not  use  it  (outside  of  school  hours)  for  club 
meetings,  lectures,  and  other  community  gatherings  or  enter- 
tainments. In  some  communities  the  schoolhouse  has  become 
a  center  in  which  various  community  activities  are  carried  on ; 


54    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

and  this  is  as  it  should  be.  In  a  few  cities  in  the  country  the 
experiment  has  been  tried  with  success  of  using  the  school- 
houses  for  polling  places  on  election  days — that  is,  places  at 
which  the  voters  of  the  community  may  go  to  cast  their  votes 
for  candidates  who  are  seeking  to  become  officers  of  the  gov- 
ernment. It  is  probable  that  in  the  course  of  time  many 
schoolhouses  will  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  their  being 
used  for  numerous  community  purposes  in  addition  to  teach- 
ing. 

LIBRA  RIES.  In  Richmond  there  is  a  large  library  owned 
and  supported  by  the  government  of  the  state.  This  library 
has  certain  collections  of  books  known  as  "traveling  libraries," 
which  are  sent  to  various  parts  of  the  state  for  temporary  use. 
Many  of  our  schools  have  established  small  libraries  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  school  work.  In  a  few  cities  also  the 
government  has  established  free  public  libraries.  In  Norfolk, 
for  example,  the  building  for  such  a  library  was  given  by  Mr. 
Andrew  Carnegie,  and  the  library  is  supported  at  the  expense 
of  the  city.  Of  course  it  is  very  nearly  impossible  for  the  gov- 
ernment to  establish  numerous  public  libraries  in  farming 
communities,  but  the  time  will  doubtless  come  when  prac- 
tically every  city  and  village  community  will  have  at  least  one 
public  library,  where  the  people  may,  without  the  payment 
of  any  fee,  secure  books  and  magazines  for  limited  periods  of 
time. 


CLASS  EXERCISES 

1 .  What  e\aclences  are  there  in  your  community  that  the  government 
is  helping  tlie  i)Cople  to  attain  knowledge?  Are  thorc  i)ublic  schools? 
Is  there  a  public  library?  Is  there  a  high  school?  A  i)ublic  insl  it  iition  of 
higher  learning?     Have  you  ever  seen  a  traveling  library? 

2.  Explain  how  your  life  in  the  school  corresponds  to  life  in  your  com- 
mvmity.  What  constitutes  the  school  government?  Who  makes  and  who 
enforces  the  laws?  Do  you  see  how  your  school  training  will  help  to  make 
vou  a  better  citizen?     In  what  way? 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


55 


3.  Do  the  peoi)le  in  Virginia  govern  themselves?  What  kind  of  gov- 
ernment is  this  called?  Why  is  education  necessary  for  people  who  govern 
themselves?     What  were  Thomas  Jefferson's  views  about  this? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  public  education  did  not  develop 
in  Virginia  before  the  war?     Why  did  it  de\'elop  in  New  England? 

5.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  school  system  of  your  community.  If 
there  is  no  high  school  near  you,  are  the  i;)eoi)lc  talking  of  building  one? 
Who  is  your  county  or  city  superintendent?  What  are  the  duties  of  the 
school  board?     Do  you  know  any  of  its  members? 

6.  Is  your  school  a  graded  or  an  vmgraded  school?  Have  any  schools 
in  your  county  been  consolidated?  How  are  the  pupils  brought  to  the 
school?  Why  were  the  schools  consolidated?  If  you  are  a  pupil  in  a 
consolidated  school,  what  are  some  of  the  advantages  you  now  enjoy 
which  you  did  not  have  before? 

7.  Who  builds  and  pays  for  the  support  of  public  schools?  Why  does 
the  government  do  this?  Suppose  the  government  did  not  provide  schools, 
are  there  not  many  children  who  would  be  deprived  of  an  education? 

8.  In  what  ways  does  the  family  assist  in  education?  What  duty  in 
this  respect  do  parents  owe  their  children?  What  duty  in  this  respect  do 
you  as  pupils  owe  to  yourselves,  your  families,  and  your  community? 

9.  Is  your  schoolhouse  used  for  any  community  purpose  after  school 
hours?    Can  you  think  of  any  purpose  it  could  be  used  for? 


A  RURAL  SCHOOL  BASE  BALL  TEAM 


V^ 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

THE  NECESSITY  FOR  GOOD  ROADS.  In  1790,  when 
Thomas  Jefferson  arrived  in  New  York  to  take  his  position  as 
Secretary  of  State  under  the  newly  formed  government  of  the 
United  States,  he  wrote  as  follows  to  a  friend  whom  he  had 
left  in  Virginia:  "I  arrived  here  on  the  21st  inst.,  after  as 
laborious  a  journey" of  a  fortnight  as  I  ever  went  through; 
resting  only  one  day  at  Alexandria,  and  another  day  at  Balti- 
more. I  found  my  carriage  and  horses  at  Alexandria,  but  a 
snow  eighteen  inches  deep  falling  the  same  night,  I  saw  the 
impossibility  of  getting  on  in  my  carriage,  so  I  left  it  there,  to 
be  sent  to  me  by  water,  and  had  my  horses  led  on  to  this 
place  [New  York],  taking  my  passage  in  the  stage,  however 
relieving  myself  a  little  sometimes  by  mounting  my  horse. 
The  roads  through  the  whole  way  were  so  bad  that  we  could 
never  get  more  than  3  miles  an  hour,  sometimes  not  more 
than  2,  and  in  the  night  but  1." 

In  this  day  of  speeding  railway  trains  and  other  con- 
veniences for  swift  transportation,  w^e  can  scarcely  appreciate 
the  difficulties  and  discomforts  of  travel  in  those  early  days. 
Thomas  Jefferson  took  fourteen  days  to  make  a  trip  from 
Richmond  to  New  York — a  journey  which  we  now  make  in 
about  half  as  many  hours. 

The  problem  of  building  and  maintaining  good  roads  is  one 
in  which  practically  everybody  has  a  direct  or  indirect  in- 
terest. In  farming  communities  this  interest  is  too  obvious 
to  require  mention.  Recently  many  people  who  live  in  cities 
have  become  directly  interested  in  the  country  roads  because 
the  automobile  is  now  so  extensively  used.  Aside  from  this, 
however,  the  people  of  cities  should  not  forget  that  they  are 

56 


ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS  57 

dependent  upon  the  farmers  both  for  their  food  and  for  the 
raw  materials  which  they  use  in  their  factories.  Although 
it  is  true  that  most  of  the  food  and  raw  materials  are  carried 
to  the  cities  by  railroad  or  by  boat,  it  is  also  true  that  the  vast 
majority  of  these  products  have  to  be  hauled  over  country 
roads  before  they  reach  the  railway  depots  and  the  steamboat 
wharves. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  ROADS.  In  Jeffer- 
son's time  it  was  the  usual  custom  for  the  large  planters  to 
build  such  roads  as  they  needed.  At  best  these  roads  were 
of  very  crude  construction.  If  they  were  used  by  others,  a 
toll  was  charged.  Sometimes,  also,  private  companies, 
usually  known  as  turnpike  companies,  were  organized  to  con- 
struct and  maintain  roads.  These  companies  went  into  this 
business  for  the  purpose  of  making  money.  They  invariably 
collected  tolls  of  every  person  who  used  the  road  or  roads  which 
they  owned.  Long  ago,  however,  it  became  evident  that  the 
government  itself  would  have  to  undertake  the  construction 
of  roads  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people  of  the  community. 
Even  after  the  counties  of  Virginia  began  to  build  roads,  they 
usually  defrayed  all  or  a  part  of  the  expense  of  construction 
and  maintenance  by  charging  tolls.  This  toll  system  is  still 
followed  in  some  parts  of  the  state,  and  there  are  still  some 
private  roads. 

Another  plan,  adopted  at  a  later  date  in  Virginia,  was  that 
of  requiring  every  able-bodied  man  who  resided  outside  of  a 
city  or  village  to  work  on  the  roads  two  days  in  every  year. 
If  he  did  not  wish  to  perform  this  work,  he  could  pay  the 
government  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  a  laborer's  wages  for 
two  days.  This  plan,  which  existed  in  Virginia  for  many 
years,  was  not  a  great  success.  Some  people  have  the  idea 
that  anybody  can  construct  a  road.  In  point  of  fact  the  build- 
ing of  a  good  road  requires  the  skill  of  a  trained  engineer. 
Most  farmers  do  not  possess  this  training. 


58    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Provision  is  now  made  by  which  the  government  oi  Vir- 
ginia furnishes  a  competent  road  engineer  to  any  county  that 
desires  to  improve  its  roads.  The  government  also  furnishes 
a  force  of  laborers  made  up  of  convicts  from  the  state  peni- 
tentiary. The  county  pays  the  salary  of  the  engineer  and 
buys  the  material  that  is  needed  for  construction,  such  as 
gravel,  crushed  stone,  cinders,  or. shells.  The  state  govern- 
ment also  appropriates  a  comparatively  small  sum  of  money 


AN  UNIMPROVED  ROAD  IN  SPOTTSVLVANIA  COUNTY,  VIRGINIA 


every  year  to  assist  the  counties  in  constructing  certain  roads. 
Where  the  state  government  lends  this  assistance,  it  pays 
half  the  expenses  of  construction. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  schools,  the  responsibility  for  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  roads  rests  largely  upon  the 
community  itself.  The  construction  of  good  roads  is  indeed 
a  costly  undertaking,  but  they  mean  so  much  to  the  pros- 
peri  t>-  and  progress  of  the  community  that  the  people  are  often 
williiiiT    ((,   rn.ikc    the    fiii.iiici.il    siicririccs    (hat   arc   necessary. 


ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS  59 

As  individuals  we  cannot,  of  course,  undertake  to  construct 
and  maintain  roads  in  the  community  in  which  we  Vive.  We 
can,  however,  use  our  infkience  to  get  the  j2;overnment  to  do 
this. 

THE  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  ROADS.  The  govern- 
ment cannot  often  undertake  anything  more  than  the  laying 
down  of  the  roadbed  itself.  But  the  individuals  who  live  in 
farming  communities  can  themselves  do  many  things  to  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  the  roads.     For  one  thing  they  can 


SAME  ROAD  AS  SHOWN  ON  OPPOSITE  PAGE,  AFTER  IMPROVEMENT 

and  should  keep  the  weeds  cut  down  along  the  roadsides. 
When  they  are  clearing  out  woods  to  secure  land  for  cultiva- 
tion, they  should  always  leave  trees  standing  at  the  road's 
edge.  Indeed  the  owners  of  farms  could  often  plant  trees 
along  hot  and  dreary  roads  with  excellent  results  to  their 
community  and  with  comparatively  little  expense  and  trouble 
to  themselves.  Many  farms  could  be  greatly  improved  in 
appearance  by  the  planting  of  vines  to  cover  unsightly  fences. 
It  seems  needless  to  say,  moreover,  that  well-painted  houses 


60    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 


and  barns,  neatly  kept  barn-yards,  a  bit  of  well  ordered  lawn, 
and  a  few  trees  and  flowers  contribute  not  only  to  the  happi- 
ness of  the  family  but  also  to  the  general  appearance  of  the 
community. 

Some  of  these  things,  which  add  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  farm  community,  must  of  course  be  neglected  at  times 
because  of  the  lack  of  money.  But  many  of  them  cost  noth- 
ing more  than  a  little  thought  and  a  little  time.  When  they 
are  not  attended  to,  it  is  merely  because  of  thoughtlessness 


AN  ILL- KEPT  ROAD 
Showing  weeds  cut  from  the  sides  but  not  removed  from  the  roadbed 

or  indifference.  Naturally  the  government  does  not  compel 
us  to  improve  the  appearance  of  our  property.  We  can  let 
it  remain  as  shabby  as  we  choose.  But  everybody  ought  to 
realize  that,  aside  from  his  own  pleasure,  he  has  a  real  duty 
toward  his  community  in  respect  to  this  matter.  There  are 
probably  few  if  any  communities  in  the  entire  state  of  Virginia 
that  could  not  be  made  vastly  more  attractive  places  to  live 


ROAUS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS 


61 


in,  if  every  body  would  do  for  his  own  property  only  so  much  as 
might  reasonably  be  expected  of  him. 

The  schoolhouses  themselves  are  usually  built  close  to  some 
road,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  they  are  sometimes 
shamefully  neglected.  Even  if  the  school  building  is  a  homely 
one,  its  appearance  can  be  greatly  improved  by  the  planting 
of  a  few  trees  and  shrubs  and  flowers.  With  a  little  direction 
from  teachers  and  parents,  the  pupils  of  any  school  can  do 


A  WELL-KEPT  ROAD 
Notice  how  the  appearance  of  this  road  is  improved  by  trees 


much  to  improve  the  appearance  of  their  schoolhouse.  Espe- 
cially can  they  assist  by  refraining  from  injury  to  the  school 
property,  by  keeping  the  grounds  free  from  Htter  and  rubbish, 
and  by  refusing  to  place  unsightly  pictures  and  writings  on 
walls  and  fences.  The  appearance  of  the  schoolhouse  and 
grounds,  no  matter  how  simple  and  plain  they  may  be,  ought 


62    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  be  a  matter  of  individual  interest  and  pride  to  every  person 
in  the  community. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITY  STREETS.  In 
cities  the  government  has  many  obligations  toward  the 
streets.  In  the  first  place,  the  streets  are  either  laid  out  by 
the  government  itself  or,  if  laid  out  by  some  private  person 
upon  his  own  property,  they  must  be  approved  by  the  gov- 
ernment. Formerly  the  government  was  very  careless  in 
determining  where  and  how  the  streets  should  run.  In  con- 
sequence the  streets  of  some  cities  are  very  badly  and  in- 
conveniently arranged.  .  In  recent  years  many  cities  have  been 
giving  careful  study  to  this  matter.  They  cannot  in  most 
instances  make  many  changes  in  existing  streets,  for  this  is  a 
costly  undertaking.  But  they  are  determined  that,  as  the 
city  grows,  new  streets  shall  be  opened  up  in  accordance  with 
a  carefully  designed  scheme  or  plan.  This  has  come  to  be 
known  as  "city  planning." 

In  the  second  place,  the  government  undertakes  to  pave 
the  streets.  The  sidewalks  are  usually  paved  with  bricks  or 
with  concrete  made  of  crushed  stone,  sand,  and  cement. 
Many  of  the  roadways  of  the  streets  are  also  paved,  either 
with  stone  blocks,  or  with  brick,  or  with  asphalt,  which  is  a 
hard  substance  commonly  made  of  tar,  lime,  and  sand.  In 
selecting  the  pavement  for  a  street  roadway  the  government 
usually  considers  the  kind  of  traffic  for  which  the  street  is 
used.  In  residential  streets  sheet  asphalt  or  asphalt  blocks 
have  become  the  most  popular  paving ;  but  in  parts  of  the  busi- 
ness district,  where  the  streets  are  used  chiefly  by  heavy 
wagons  and  trucks,  stone  blocks  are  commonly  used.  In  all 
cases  culverts  are  provided  at  the  corners  so  that  the  streets 
may  be  drained  of  rain  water. 

In  the  third  place,  the  government  permits  the  streets  to  be 
used  for  other  purposes  than  walking  or  driving,  which  is  of 
course  their  chief  use.  Mains  and  pipes  are  laid  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  streets  in  order  that  water  and  gas  may  be  fur- 


ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS 


63 


nished  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city,  and  in  order  that  sewage 
may  be  carried  off  from  their  homes.  The  government  also 
permits  street  car  companies  to  lay  tracks  on  certain  of  the 
streets,  while  telephone  and  telegraph  and  electric  lighting 
companies  are  allowed  to  erect  poles  and  string  wires  along  the 
streets.  As  we  have  seen,  however,  the  government  reserves 
the  right  to  regulate  the  business  of  these  companies  in  return 
for  the  special  privileges  they  enjoy,  and  it  usually  also  makes 
them  pay  for  the  use  which  they  make  of  the  streets. 


,  ^ 

1 

JimH 

-  ^"^ijLLILLL  ' 

1  -    1      li 

1          (          f 

1 

/^ 

■  1  ^^'"  .f .   _■    *- 

■             ; 

KT 

^ 

r 

^^DkI^SSE^W,-"^^  ■4^'^mhli'l^^i^. 

'       i          i 

\ 

A  CONVICT  ROAD  CAMP 
In  such  camps  are  state  convicts  housed  while  they  are  engaged  in  road  con- 
struction 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  STREETS:  Just  as  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  people  who  live  in  farming  communities  to 
improve  the  appearance  of  their  property  along  the  roads,  so 
it  is  the  duty  of  city  residents  to  improve  their  property  along 
the  streets  and  thus  add  to  the  appearance  of  their  neighbor- 
hoods.    Whenever  a  person  improves  the  appearance  of  his 


64    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

own  home  or  yard,  he  serves  not  only  himself  but  also  his 
community.  The  streets  belong  to  everybody;  it  is,  there- 
fore, the  duty  of  everybody  to  assist  at  all  times  in  keeping 
them  clean.  This  is  true  also  of  the  parks.  The  person  who 
scatters  papers  and  other  rubbish  in  the  streets  and  parks 
of  a  city  simply  ignores  a  plain  duty  which  he  owes  to  other 
people  who  reside  in  the  community  with  him.  In  many  cities 
the  government  provides  trash  boxes  on  street  corners  and  in 
the  parks,  and  the  persons  who  do  not  use  these  boxes  have  no 
excuse  for  throwing  rubbish  elsewhere. 

In  cities  the  government  itself  finds  it  possible  to  do  many 
things  to  increase  the  attractiveness  of  the  streets.  The 
paving  of  streets  has  already  been  mentioned.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  government  undertakes  to  keep  the  roadways  of 
streets  clean.  In  some  cities  this  is  accomplished  for  the  most 
part  at  night,  in  order  not  to  interfere  with  traffic,  and  in 
order  to  save  the  people  as  much  as  possible  from  the  incon- 
venience of  dust,  especially  when  street-sweeping  wagons  are 
used. 

The  government  also  plants  rows  of  trees  along  the  side- 
walks of  many  streets.  Occasionally  the  roadway  of  a  wide 
street  is  divided  so  that  grass  plots  and  trees  may  be  planted 
in  the  center  of  the  street.  In  recent  years,  also,  cities  have 
been  giving  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  manner  of  lighting 
the  streets.  They  have  been  careful  to  select  light  standards 
that  are  ornamental  instead  of  unsightly.  1 1  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  streets  in  so  many  of  our  cities  are  spoiled  by  a  net- 
work of  telegraph,  telephone,  and  trolley  wires  and  by  the 
numerous  poles  that  are  required  to  support  these  wires. 
Some  of  the  larger  cities  in  Virginia  have  already  insisted  that 
many  wires  should  be  put  under  the  streets  in  what  are  known 
as  conduits.  The  day  will  probably  come  when  in  all  the 
larger  cities  the  government  will  demand  that  all  wires  be 
placed  underground.     Even  the  overhead  trolley  wires  will 


ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS 


65 


give  way  to  the  more  improved  underground  system,  although 
this  latter  system  is  far  more  expensive  to  construct. 

THE  GOVERNMENTS  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  THE 
STREETS.  Not  only  does  the  government  undertake  to 
improve  the  streets  in  many  ways,  but  it  is  also  responsible 
for  keeping  them  in  a  safe  condition.  Sometimes  a  street  is 
temporarily  closed  for  repairs  or  for  excavations,  and  some- 
times when  buildings  are  being  erected  or  torn  down,  the  street 
is  partially  obstructed.     The  government,  however,  prevents 


A  WELL-KEPT  STREET  IN  PETERSBURG,  VIRGINIA 
Observe,  however,  how  the  appearance  of  the  street  is  marred  by  unsightly  poles 

and  wires 

people  from  placing  unnecessary  obstructions  in  the  streets. 
Moreover,  the  government  must  see  to  it  that  the  sidewalks 
and  roadways  of  the  streets  are  kept  in  sufficient  repair  to 
prevent  accidents  from  happening  to  those  who  use  them. 
If  a  person  is  injured  as  a  result  of  the  failure  of  the  govern- 
ment to  care  for  the  streets,  he  has  the  right  to  sue  the  govern- 
ment and  to  recover  a  sum  of  money  for  the  damage  that  he 
has  suffered. 


66    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  PARKS.  The  people 
who  live  in  farming  communities  can  usually  live  out  of  doors 
as  much  as  they  choose.  But  in  cities,  where  the  houses  are 
built  close  together,  the  government  sets  apart  certain  open 
spaces  for  parks,  in  order  that  the  people  may  secure  rest  and 
recreation  free  from  the  noise  and  dust  and  dangers  of  the 
streets.  These  parks  are  usually  laid  out  with  paths  and  grass 
plots;  trees  and  flowers  are  planted;  and  monuments  and 
fountains  are  erected.  They  not  only  add  much  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  city  but  are  also  of  great  benefit  to  the  in- 
habitants, especially  during  the  hot  months  of  the  summer. 
Occasionally  the  government  even  provides  band  concerts  for 
the  pleasure  of  the  people  who  use  the  parks. 

In  recent  years  some  cities  have  undertaken  to  provide 
special  playgrounds  for  the  children  of  the  city.  Children 
ought  to  play  out  of  doors  as  much  as  possible,  and  it  is  well 
recognized  that  the  streets  are  not  the  proper  place  for  num- 
bers of  children  to  gather  for  their  play.  These  playgrounds 
are  arranged  so  that  various  games  may  be  played  and  are 
otherwise  equipped  for  the  amusement  and  athletic  develop- 
ment of  the  young  people  of  the  community.  Sometimes  also 
the  government  provides  for  such  playgrounds  an  instructor 
or  director  who  supervises  and  assists  the  children  in  organiz- 
ing their  play. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  What  means  are  afforded  in  your  community  for  your  getting  to 
and  from  school?  Describe  the  condition  of  the  roads  and  streets  over 
which  you  travel.  Is  your  school  building  attractive?  Are  there  any 
trees,  shrubs,  or  flowers  in  the  yard?  Are  the  pupils  careful  to  keep  the 
building  and  yard  clean?  Can  you  think  of  some  things  that  could  easily 
he  done  to  make  your  school  more  attractive? 

2.  If  you  live  in  a  farming  community,  describe  the  condition  of  the 
various  roads  that  you  know  about.  Of  what  are  they  constructed? 
Are  they  in  need  of  repair?  Find  out  who  is  responsible  for  repairing  the 
roads.  Do  you  know  of  any  road  that  has  recently  been  repaired?  How 
was  it  done? 


ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PARKS  67 

3.  Are  there  any  toll  roads  in  your  community?  Who  owns  them? 
Why  was  the  method  of  having  farmers  work  on  the  roads  two  days  in 
the  year  given  up?        -^^^  ^  \ 

i.  Has  the  state  approi)riated  any  monej*  for  road-building  in  j'our 
community?  Has  it  furnished  a  super\dsing  engineer?  Has  it  furnished 
convicts  from  the  state  penitentiary?  If  the  roads  in  your  community 
are  in  need  of  repair,  find  out  who  is  responsible  for  not  securing  this 
assistance  which  the  state  offers.  Are  the  people  of  your  community 
unwilling  to  pay  their  share  of  the  expense? 

5.  Select  certain  typical  roads  in  your  community  and  tell  what  you 
think  could  be  done  to  improve  their  appearance  and  comfort?  Are 
your  schoolhouse  and  grounds  an  orname.it  or  an  eyesore  to  the  com- 
munity? 

6.  If  you  live  in  a  city  or  town,  describe  how  the  sidewalks  are  paved. 
Who  paved  them?  Are  they  kept  in  good  repair?  Are  the  roadbeds  of 
the  streets  paved?     If  so,  what  are  they  paved  with  and  who  paved  them? 

7.  What  kind  of  trees  are  set  out  along  the  streets  of  your  city?  Are 
they  satisfactory  as  shade  trees?  Are  they  ornamental?  What  can  you 
do  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  streets? 

8.  What  are  the  names  of  the  several  parks  in  your  city  and  where 
are  they  located?  Draw  a  map  of  one  of  them  that  you  are  familiar  with. 
Are  the  parks  well  kej^t?  Why  does  the  government  establish  and  main- 
tain parks  in  cities?     What  use  do  the  j^eople  make  of  them? 

9.  What  uses  are  made  of  the  streets  of  your  city  in  addition  to  their 
use  for  walking  and  driving?  Can  you  jilace  any  obstruction  that  you 
choose  in  the  streets?  If  you  are  injured  as  a  result  of  some  unnecessary 
obstruction  or  defect  in  the  streets,  have  you  any  right  against  the  gov- 
ernment? 


SECOND  PART 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  STATE  AND  LOCAL  GOV- 
ERNMENTS 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  STATE 

THE  MEANING  OF  THE  STATE  CONSTITUTION. 
During  the  period  of  our  history  before  the  Revolutionary 
Weir,  each  of  the  thirteen  colonies  in  America  was  under  the 
control  of  the  government  of  England.  The  colonies  exer- 
cised only  those  rights  and  povi-ers  which  the  English  govern- 
ment permitted.  That  gt)vernment  also  determined  very 
largely  how  the  colonial  laws  should  be  made  and  in  most  of 
the  colonies  appointed  the  governor.  Under  this  system  the 
colonists  actually  enjoyed  a  large  degree  of  self-government, 
for  they  were  allowed  to  make  most  of  the  laws  by  which  they 
were  governed  and  to  choose  most  of  their  governmental 
officers. 

When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out,  Virginia  was 
governed  in  this  manner.  The  war,  however,  freed  the 
colonies  from  the  control  of  the  mother  country;  and  the 
people  of  each  colony  were  forced  to  provide  some  other  form 
of  government.  Lord  Dunmore,  the  colonial  Governor  of 
Virginia,  fled  for  his  life;  the  House  of  Burgesses,  the  law- 
making body  of  the  colony,  dissolved  itself;  and  the  old  gov- 
ernment passed  away.  Something  had  to  be  done,  for  the 
people  could  not  exist  without  any  government.  And  this  is 
what  happened.      In  May,   1776,  a  convention  composed  of 

68 


thp:  constitution  oi'  the  staff:        69 

two  delegates  from  each  county  in  Virginia  met  at  Williams- 
burg and  drew  up  a  document  providing  for  a  form  of  govern- 
ment very  similar  to  that  which  had  existed  during  the  colonial 
period.  This  written  document  declared  what  officers  should 
be  chosen  and  how  they  should  be  chosen,  what  powers  these 
officers  should  have,  and  who  should  make  and  administer 
the  laws.  This  is  what  we  mean  by  a  constitution.  It  is  a 
written  document  framed  by  delegates  representing  the  people 
of  the  state  and  providing  in  outline  the  organization  of  the 
government. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  VIRGINIA'S  CONSTITUTIONS. 
There  were  naturally  many  defects  in  this  first  constitution  of 
Virginia,  framed  as  it  was  in  great  haste  at  the  outbreak  of 
our  war  for  independence.  It  is  marvelous  indeed  that  it 
was  strong  enough  to  last  fifty-four  years.  There  were  two 
chief  defects  in  this  constitution.  In  the  first  place,  only  men 
of  considerable  property  could  vote  or  hold  office.  As  Thomas 
Jefferson  ironically  remarked,  the  government  of  Virginia 
was  in  the  hands  of  those  who  were  "distinguished  by  the 
luxury  and  ostentation  of  their  establishments."  In  the  sec- 
ond place,  the  people  in  the  different  parts  of  the  state  were 
not  equally  represented  in  the  law-making  body.  In  con- 
sequence, they  did  not  enjoy  an  equal  share  in  the  management 
of  their  own  government. 

Soon  after  the  Revolutionary  War  adventurers  began  to 
push  in  large  numbers  across  the  Alleghany  Mountains  into 
what  is  now  West  Virginia,  but  was  then  an  unsettled  part  of 
Virginia.  This  movement  of  population  during  the  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  very  rapid.  By  1815 
two-fifths  of  the  white  population  of  Virginia  lived  on  the 
other  side  of  the  mountains.  They  were  for  the  most  part 
poor  pioneers.  Few  of  them  owned  enough  property  to  vote. 
There  were  few  large  plantations  and  few  slaves.  In  fact, 
the  whole  character  of  these  people  differed  from  that  of  the 
land-owning  inhabitants  of   the  eastern   part  of   the   state. 


70    G()VERNMP:NT  and  politics  in  VIRGINIA 

Under  the  constitution  of  1776  they  had  Httle  share  in  the 
government.  They  were  allowed  to  hold  almost  no  offices, 
and  they  did  not  have  a  fair  representation  in  the  body  which 
made  laws  for  the  state. 

For  years  the  people  of  this  western  part  of  Virginia 
clamored  for  changes  in  the  state  constitution.  But  it  was 
only  after  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  that  a  convention  finally 
met  at  Richmond  in  the  winter  of  1829-30  and  drew  up  a  new 
constitution.  This  second  constitution  did  not  prove  very 
satisfactory,  how^ever,  and  in  1850-51  a  third  constitution  was 
framed  by  a  convention  representing  the  people  of  the  state. 

The  constitution  of  1851  lasted  throughout  the  period  of 
the  War  Betw^een  the  States,  It  w  as  during  the  terrible  period 
of  reconstruction,  in  December,  1867,  that  our  fourth  con- 
stitutional convention  came  together.  It  did  not  represent 
the  people  of  Virginia.  Its  membership  was  composed  al- 
most entirely  of  Northerners  and  of  recently  freed  negroes. 
The  constitution  which  they  adopted  was  known  as  the 
"Underwood  Constitution,"  taking  its  name  from  the  presi- 
dent of  the  convention.  It  was  by  no  means  wholly  bad, 
however,  and  the  people  of  Virginia  \\\cd  under  it,  with  a  few 
changes,  for  a  period  of  more  than  thirty  years. 

THE  PRESENT  CONSTITUTION  OF  VIRGINIA.  In 
1901-02  our  fifth  and  last  convention  met  and  framed  the 
constitution  under  which  our  government  is  at  present  or- 
ganized. The  chief  reforms  which  the  people  felt  it  was 
necessary  to  make  were,  first,  a  reduction  in  the  number  of 
officers  in  the  state,  and  consequently  in  the  expenses  of  the 
government;  and  second,  the  placing  of  new  restrictions  upon 
the  right  to  vote.  However,  many  other  changes  were  also 
made. 

Our  present  constitution  is  a  long  document,  covering  many 
printed  pages.  The  convention  which  framed  it  sat  for  twelve 
months  fully  and  carefully  considering  the  great  work  before 
them.     The  constitution  provides  in  detail  how  the  govern- 


THE  CONS'inUTION  OF  THE  STATE  71 

ment  shall  be  organized.  It  enumerates  all  the  chief  officers 
of  the  government  and  outlines  their  powers  and  duties.  It 
determines  who  shall  have  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  the 
various  offices.  It  provides  also  for  the  establishment  of 
local  governments  in  the  different  communities  of  the  state. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION.  The 
constitution  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
state.  This  is  because  it  is  superior  in  rank  and  importance 
to  any  other  law.  The  constitution,  as  we  shall  see,  provides 
for  a  legislature  of  the  state  and  empowers  this  legislature  to 
make  laws.  Moreover  our  various  county  and  city  govern- 
ments have  the  power  to  make  local  laws.  But  in  making 
these  laws  the  legislature  and  the  local  governments  of  the 
state  must  always  consider  the  constitution.  If  they  pass  a 
law  which  violates  any  provision  of  the  constitution,  the  courts, 
as  we  shall  see,  will  simply  declare  that  the  thing  which  the>' 
have  called  a  law  is  not  in  fact  a  law  at  all;  and  the  courts 
will  refuse  to  enforce  it.  For  example,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
government  cannot  deprive  us  of  our  freedom  of  speech  and 
the  press,  except  as  we  abuse  this  freedom  and  thus  injure 
others.  This  is  because  the  constitution  says  that  "any  citi- 
zen may  speak  freely,  write  and  publish  his  sentiments  on  all 
subjects,  being  responsible  for  the  abuse  of  that  right."  Now 
if  the  legislature  should  be  so  foolish  as  to  enact  a  law  pro- 
hibiting a  person  from  publishing  an  ordinary  newspaper,  the 
courts  would  simply  say  that  in  spite  of  this  law  he  could  go 
ahead  with  the  publication  of  his  paper. 

This  is  merely  a  single  illustration;  for,  as  we  have  seen,  we 
have  many  other  personal  and  property  rights  which  the 
government  may  not  take  away  from  us.  This  is  because 
these  rights  are  written  down  in  the  constitution;  and  neither 
the  legislature  nor  any  officer  of  the  government  can  ignore 
or  violate  the  constitution.  It  is  higher  than  the  government 
itself,  and  this  is  why  it  is  called  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
state. 


72    COVERNMKNT  AND  POLmCS  IN  VIRGINIA 

now  THE  CONSTITUTION  MA  Y  BE  CIIA NGED.  So 
important  is  the  constitution  that  it  may  be  changed  only  b>' 
unusual  procedure.  The  legislature  of  the  state  may  indeed 
propose  amendments  to  the  constitution.  But  when  any 
amendment  has  been  proposed  by  one  legislature,  it  must 
wait  until  a  new  legislature  has  been  elected  and  must  receive 
the  approval  of  this  new  legislature.  After  that  it  must  be 
submitted  to  the  people  themselves  and  the  voters  cast  their 
ballots  for  or  against  the  proposal.  If  a  majority  of  the  voters 
are  in  favor  of  the  amendment  thus  proposed,  it  then  becomes 
a  part  of  the  constitution. 

We  have  vseen  that  we  have  had  a  number  of  constitutional 
conventions  in  Virginia.  Whenever  it  seems  desirable  to  have 
an  entirely  new  constitution,  the  legislature  asks  the  people 
to  vote  on  the  question  of  whether  they  wish  a  convention 
to  be  called  for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  constitution.  If 
a  majority  of  the  voters  are  in  favor  of  calling  such  a  conven- 
tion, the  legislature  then  makes  provision  for  its  coming  to- 
gether. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1 .  How  were  we  governed  in  Virginia  during  the  colonial  period?  Who 
determined  our  form  of  government?  Were  we  permitted  to  make  any 
of  our  laws?  To  choose  any  of  our  officers?  How  did  the  Revohitionary 
War  change  our  situation? 

2.  Who  determines  our  form  of  government  to-day?  How  is  this  done? 
What  is  meant  by  a  constitution?  How  many  constitutions  have  we  had 
in  Virginia?     How  were  these  constitutions  drawn  up? 

3.  Explain  how  the  constitution  jirotects  our  liberties.  Against  whom 
are  they  protected?  How  n\ay  the  constitution  be  changed?  Why  may 
our  law-makers  not  change  it? 

4.  When  was  our  present  constitution  framed?  By  whom  was  it 
framed?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  the  names  of  some  of  the  members  of  the 
convention  of  1901-02.     Who  represented  your  county  or  city? 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  VOTES  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

THE  MEANING  OF  REPRESENTATIVE  GOVERN- 
MENT. As  we  have  seen,  the  government  is  really  an  or- 
ganization which  lays  down  and  enforces  certain  laws  that 
the  people  must  obey,  and  which  undertakes  many  services 
for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  It  would  be  manifestly  im- 
possible for  all  the  people  of  Virginia  to  come  together  and 
themselves  make  the  laws  for  the  entire  state.  Indeed  it 
would  be  very  inconvenient,  if  not  impossible,  for  the  people 
of  an  entire  county  or  city  to  come  together  and  enact  the 
laws  for  their  own  community.  The  people  of  Virginia  have 
solved  this  difficulty  by  establishing  what  is  known  as  repre- 
sentative government.  Instead  of  making  the  laws  directly 
for  themselves  they  choose  certain  representatives  to  do  this 
for  them.  For  example,  the  people  of  every  county  choose  a 
group  of  representatives  known  as  the  board  of  supervisors. 
These  representatives  make  laws  for  the  county.  The  people 
of  every  city  choose  a  group  of  representatives  that  are  com- 
monly known  as  the  city  council.  This  council  makes  the 
laws  for  the  city.  The  people  of  the  entire  state  choose  a 
group  of  representatives  known  as  the  General  Assembly,  and 
ihis  body  makes  the  laws  for  the  entire  state.  In  addition 
to  these  several  groups  who  make  the  laws,  the  people  choose 
other  representatives  to  enforce  the  laws  and  to  manage  the 
various  services  which  the  government  undertakes  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people. 

The  people  control  their  government  through  these  repre- 
sentatives whom  they  themselves  elect.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  right  that  we  as  a  people  have  is  our  right  to  vote 
for  or  against  the  persons  who  offer  themselves  as  candidates 

73 


74    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLiriCS  IN  VIRC.INIA 

to  represent  us  in  the  government.  Our  representatives  arc 
responsible  to  us  for  the  kind  of  laws  they  enact  and  for  the 
manner  in  which  they  enforce  these  laws  and  carry  on  the 
various  governmental  services.  If  we  are  not  satisfied  with 
the  way  the  government  is  being  carried  on,  we  have  the  right 
to  turn  our  existing  representatives  out  of  office  and  to  choose 
others  in  whom  we  have  greater  confidence. 

THE  RIGHT  TO  VOTE.     When  we  say  that  the  people 
choose  representatives  to  carry  on  the  government  for  them, 
we  do  not  mean  that  every  person  in  each  community  has  the 
right  to  vote.     For  many  reasons  this  is  not  the  case.     For 
example,  the  children  are  not  permitted  to  share  in  selecting 
the  officers  of  the  government.     Nor  are  the  women  of  Vir- 
ginia pcnnilted  to  vote  at  elections,  although  in  a  number  of 
states  in  the  Union  the  right  to  vote  has  been  extended  to 
women.     Again,  foreigners  (that  is,  persons  who  have  not  yet 
become  citizens  of  the  United  States),  and  citizens  of  other 
states  who  happen  to  be  temporarily  in  Virginia  at  the  time 
of  an  election,  cannot  cast  votes.     Moreover,  we  do  not  allow 
men  to  vote  in  Virginia  who  cannot  read  and  write.     The  more 
intelligent  people  of  the  state  have  concluded  that  a  man  who 
cannot  even  read  and  write,  and  who  must  in  consequence  be 
very  ignorant  of  what  is  going  on  in  the  world,  is  not  a  fit 
person  to  help  in  choosing  the  officers  of  the  government. 
Finally,  we  exclude  from  the  right  to  vote  persons  who  are 
insane  or  who  are  paupers  and  have  to  be  supi^orted  1)y  the 
government,  and  jjcrsons  who  have  been  convicted  of  crime. 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  many  persons  are  denied  the  right 
to  share  in  choosing  the  officers  of  the  government.  There 
are  more  than  two  million  people  in  the  state  of  Virginia,  but 
in  the  election  held  in  1912,  at  which  Woodrow  Wilson  was 
chosen  President  of  the  United  States,  only  136,976  votes  were 
cast.  This  means  that  only  one  person  out  of  every  sixteen 
cast  a  vote.  In  1913,  when  we  elected  a  governor  in  Virginia, 
onh'  72,41  7  votes  were  cast.     This  means  that  only  one  person 


THE  VOTES  OF  THE  PEOPLE  75 

out  of  every  twenty-eight  cast  a  vote.  It  must  not  be  under- 
stood that  these  numbers  represent  all  of  the  persons  who 
might  have  cast  votes;  for  there  were  doubtless  many  persons 
who  did  not  take  advantage  of  their  right  to  vote.  These 
figures  illustrate,  however,  how  very  small  Is  the  number  of 
persons  who  actually  participate  in  selecting  the  officers  of 
the  government. 

QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  VOTING.  We  have  just 
noted  the  various  classes  of  persons  who  are  not  permitted  to 
vote  in  Virginia.  The  constitution  itself  determines  who  has 
the  right  to  vote.  It  may  be  well,  therefore,  to  set  down  the 
list  of  qualifications  which  the  constitution  prescribes.  In  the 
first  place,  a  person  entitled  to  vote  must  be  of  the  male  sex; 
he  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  (that  is,  one  who  was 
born  in  the  United  States  or  who,  having  been  born  abroad, 
has  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  by  swearing  away 
his  allegiance  to  any  other  government);  and  he  must  be  at 
least  twenty-one  years  of  age.  In  the  second  place,  he  must 
have  resided  in  the  state  of  Virginia  for  at  least  two  years, 
and  in  the  particular  county  or  city  in  which  he  offers  to  vote, 
for  at  least  one  year.  For  voting  purposes  the  various  com- 
munities of  the  state  are  divided  into  precincts  or  election 
districts ;  and  the  law  provides  that  a  man  offering  to  vote  shall 
have  resided  in  his  precinct  or  election  district  for  at  least 
thirty  days.  In  the  third  place,  a  man  who  desires  to  vote 
must  be  registered.  This  means  that  his  name  must  be  re- 
corded in  what  is  known  as  a  registration  book.  The  law 
provides  that  in  each  election  district  there  shall  be  an  officer 
known  as  a  registrar.  On  a  certain  day  in  May  and  another 
day  in  October  of  every  year  this  officer  sits  at  some  con- 
venient place  in  the  district  to  receive  and  record  the  names  of 
those  who  are  entitled  to  register.  On  these  days  any  person 
whose  name  is  not  already  registered  and  who  expects  to 
vote  at  the  election  must  present  himself,  prove  his  qualifica- 
tions, and  have  his  name  properly  enrolled  upon  the  book. 


76    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Such  a  person  may  also  register  on  any  other  day  provided  he 
can  locate  the  registrar.  On  the  day  of  election  only  those  are 
permitted  to  vote  whose  names  are  found  in  the  registration 
book.  In  the  fourth  place,  every  male  resident  of  Virginia 
who  is  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  is  required  to  pay  a  yearly 
poll-tax  of  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents.  No  man  can  vote  at 
any  election  who  has  not  paid  his  poll-taxes  for  the  three  years 
preceding  the  election.  This  requirement  in  itself  operates 
to  reduce  the  number  of  voters ;  for  if  a  man  has,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  neglected  to  pay  his  poll-taxes  for  a  few  years, 
he  is  compelled  to  pay  the  sum  of  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents 
before  he  can  be  registered  as  a  voter.  His  own  interest  in, 
and  duty  toward,  the  government  should  pre\ent  him  from 
subjecting  himself  to  this  penalty.  In  the  fifth  place,  when  a 
man  presents  himself  for  registration,  he  is  required  to  make 
application  in  his  own  handwriting.  If  he  cannot  write,  he 
cannot  be  registered  and  therefore  cannot  vote. 

These  are  the  most  important  qualifications  which,  under 
the  constitution,  every  man  must  ha\e  in  order  to  qualify  as 
a  voter.  )^ 

THE  PLACES  OF  VOTING.  As  we  shall  see  a  little 
later,  every  county  in  Virginia  is  for  certain  purposes  of  gov- 
ernment divided  into  magisterial  districts  and  every  city 
into  wards.  Often  these  districts  and  wards  are  for  voting 
purposes  also  divided  into  precincts,  or  election  districts. 
In  each  precinct,  or  election  district,  there  is  one  place, 
called  a  polling-place,  at  which  the  voters  who  live  in  the  dis- 
trict may  cast  their  votes  at  any  election.  In  charge  of  these 
polling-places  are  certain  election  officers  who  are  appointed 
in  accordance  with  the  law.  These  officers  first  examine  the 
books  and  determine  whether  a  person  desiring  to  vote  is 
properly  registered.  If  his  registration  proves  to  be  satis- 
factory, they  then  permit  him  to  cast  his  vote. 

THE  VOTING.  In  the  early  days  of  our  history  it  was  the 
custom,  when  a  voter  went  to  the  polls,  to  read  him  the  names 


THE  VOTES  OF  THE  PEOPLE  77 

of  the  candidates  for  office  and  to  ask  him  which  candidate 
he  desired  to  vote  for.  Thereupon  the  voter  would  call  the 
name  of  the  candidate  of  his  choice.  Under  such  a  system 
everybody  knew  how  everybody  else  voted.  The  result  was 
that  men  could  not  always  vote  with  independence,  because 
of  what  other  people  might  think  of  them.  They  might  be 
made  to  suffer  in  some  way  for  voting  as  they  thought  best. 

Today,  however,  we  have  a  wholly  different  system.  It  is 
usually  impossible  for  anybody  to  know  how  anybody  else 
votes.  When  a  person  goes  to  the  polls,  he  is  given  a  slip  of 
paper  called  a  ballot  with  the  names  of  the  different  candidates 
printed  on  it.  He  then  retires  to  a  booth,  where  no  one  else  is 
permitted,  and  with  a  pen  he  draws  a  line  through  the  names 
of  the  candidates  whom  he  opposes,  leaving  unscratched  the 
name  of  the  candidate  of  his  choice.  He  folds  his  ballot  and 
hands  it  to  one  of  the  election  officers,  who  deposits  it  in  a 
sealed  ballot  box.  None  of  these  ballots  are  examined  until 
the  election  is  closed.  It  is  impossible  for  one  voter  to  tell 
how  any  other  voter  has  cast  his  ballot;  for  when  the  ballot 
box  is  opened,  nobody  can  tell  who  cast  this  or  that  ballot. 

The  election  lasts  for  one  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  At 
its  close  the  ballot  boxes  are  opened  and  the  ballots  are 
counted.  The  count,  or  return  as  it  is  called,  is  then  sent  to 
the  county  board  or  the  city  board  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  these  boards  add  up  the  returns  from  the  various 
voting  precincts.  In  case  the  election  is  for  state  officers, 
these  local  boards  send  their  returns  to  the  capital  at  Rich- 
mond, where  the  returns  for  the  whole  state  are  added  and 
the  result  of  the  election  is  announced.  ^ 

INITIATIVE,  REFERENDUM,  AND  RECALL.  In 
Virginia  the  voter  shares  in  the  conduct  of  the  government 
chiefly  by  casting  his  ballot  for  the  choice  of  officers  of  the 
government.  Occasionally  also  he  is  called  upon  to  vote  for 
or  against  an  amendment  to  the  constitution,  or  to  vote  di- 
rectly on  some  question,  such,  for  example,  as  whether  the 


78    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  shall  be  prohibited  in  the  state. 
In  some  other  states  of  the  Union  the  voterg  are  permitted  to 
share  more  directly  in  the  conduct  of  the  government.  For 
example,  a  group  of  voters  may  themselves  draw  up  a  pro- 
posed law  and  petition  the  government  to  have  it  passed. 
This  is  known  as  the  "initiative."  If  the  legislative  body 
does  not  itself  enact  this  law,  they  are  compelled  to  let  the 
voters  decide  by  their  own  votes  whether  or  not  it  shall  be  a 
law.  Moreover,  if  the  legislature  passes  a  certain  law,  and 
some  of  the  voters  are  opposed  to  it,  they  may  petition  to  have 
it  submitted  directly  to  the  voters.  This  is  known  as  the 
"referendum,"  which  means  a  proposition  referred  to  the 
voters.  This  plan  of  letting  the  voters  share  somewhat  di- 
rectly in  the  making  of  laws  has  not  been  adopted  in  Virginia. 

Another  scheme  by  which  the  voters  of  some  states  control 
the  officers  of  the  government  is  known  as  the  "recall."  All 
of  our  officers  are  elected  for  definite  terms  of  office — for 
example,  for  a  term  of  two  or  of  four  years.  If  we  happen  to 
choose  an  unsatisfactory  officer,  we  usually  have  to  wait  until 
his  term  is  ended  before  we  can  elect  someone  else  in  his  place. 
Under  the  recall,  however,  if  a  group  of  voters  are  dissatisfied 
with  any  officer,  they  may  petition  to  have  him  recalled  before 
the  end  of  his  term.  This  means  that  a  special  election  must 
be  held,  and  the  voters  can  then  decide  whether  they  will  re- 
tain the  officer  in  question  or  put  some  other  person  in  his 
place. 

THE  DUTY  OF  THE  VOTER.  Unfortunately  many  ex- 
cellent men  have  the  idea  that  it  is  beneath  them  "to  dabble 
in  politics."  By  their  indifference  they  sometimes  permit 
the  affairs  of  the  government  to  be  directed  by  low  political 
bosses  and  shrewd  schemers  who  ha\'e  onlv  their  own  interests 
at  heart.  Nothing  can  be  more  hurtful  to  any  community 
than  this  attitude  which  some  good  men  assume.  Of  course 
it  is  impossible  for  every  man  to  enter  politics.  It  is  not  even 
desirable.     But  every  man  should  be  interested  in  all  the 


THE  VOTES  OF  THE  PEOPLE  79 

undertakings  of  the  government,  and  this  means  that  he  should 
be  interested  in  what  we  call  politics. 

He  should  keep  himself  thoroughly  in  touch  with  what  the 
government  is  doing.  He  should  try  to  learn  which  of  two 
or  more  men  desiring  a  particular  office  is  the  most  honest 
and  the  most  capable.  He  should  lend  his  influence  in  private 
conversation,  and  if  need  be  in  public,  to  keep  bad  men  out  of 
office.  In  every  way  possible  he  should  further  the  best  in- 
terests of  his  community  through  the  government.  Not 
only  this,  but  the  best  men  of  the  community  should  not  hold 
themselves  aloof  from  the  service  of  the  government.  Nearly 
always  there  are  plenty  of  men  who  desire  to  be  officers;  but 
frequently  none  of  them  are  the  right  sort  of  men  for  public 
office,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  get  better  men  to  see 
that  it  is  their  duty  to  serve.  The  great  hope  of  any  state  is 
that  its  more  intelligent  men  will  be  wide  awake  to  every 
movement  which  concerns  the  welfare  of  their  community  and 
state,  and  that  whenever  it  is  possible  they  will  use  their  in- 
fluence to  better  the  conditions  of  the  government. 

THE  DUTY  OF  THOSE  WHO  DO  NOT  VOTE.  It  is 
true,  as  we  have  seen,  that  many  persons  in  Virginia  do  not 
have  the  right  to  vote.  But  every  man,  woman,  and  child, 
whether  he  votes  or  not,  should  be  interested  in  the  govern- 
ment and  contribute  in  every  way  that  he  can  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  community.  The  women,  for  example,  both  as 
individuals  and  in  their  charitable  and  other  organizations, 
may  often  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  government  matters 
which  need  to  be  attended  to.  The  children  can  in  many 
ways  improve  the  conditions  of  the  schools  which  the  govern- 
ment provides.  Indeed,  our  study  thus  far  must  have  made 
it  clear  that  the  government  cannot  and  does  not  undertake 
to  do  everything  that  the  people  of  a  community. need.  Much 
is  left  to  be  done  by  individuals  and  by  private  associations 
of  individuals,  who  may  or  may  not  be  voters.  Not  only 
can  these  individuals  and  associations  influence  the  govern- 


80    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

ment,  but  they  can  also  do  many  things  for  the  community 
which  the  government  must  of  necessity  leave  undone. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1 .  What  do  we  mean  by  democratic  government?  Would  it  be  possible 
in  your  community  for  the  peojile  to  make  their  laws  directly?  How  are 
the  laws  made?  Who  makes  the  laws  for  the  whole  state?  What  kind 
of  government  do  we  call  this?     Why? 

2.  Explain  how  a  man  shares  in  the  government  by  voting.  Why  do 
not  children  have  this  right?  Women?  Foreigners?  Citizens  of  other 
states?     Insane  people? 

3.  Why  does  the  constitution  require  that  a  voter  shall  be  able  to  write? 
Should  an  illiterate. man  be  trusted  to  hold  office?  To  choose  officers? 
Why? 

4.  Mention  all  the  qualifications  for  voters  in  Virginia.  Take  each  of 
these  qualifications  separately,  and  tell  whether  you  think  it  is  necessary 
or  unnecessary,  and  why. 

5.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  how  many  magisterial  districts  there  are  in 
your  county,  or  how  many  wards  there  are  in  your  city.  Find  out,  if  yo;i 
can,  how  many  precincts  or  election  districts  there  are  in  your  magisterial 
district  or  ward.  In  what  precinct  or  election  district  do  you  live?  Find 
out  where  the  voting  place  of  your  precinct  or  election  district  was  located 
at  the  last  election. 

6.  Explain  the  old  method  of  voting.  Explain  how  the  votes  are  cast 
to-day.  What  was  accomplished  by  the  change  from  the  old  method? 
What  is  the  ballot?     The  ballot  box? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  initiative?     The  referendum?     The  recall? 

8.  Explain  how  it  is  the  duty  of  every  man  to  be  interested  in  politics. 
To  whom  does  the  government  belong?  Explain  how  the  govcrnmont  is  a 
part  of  us.  What  is  our  duty  toward  it?  How  will  we  suffer  if  we  fail 
in  this  duty? 

9.  Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  those  who  do  not  vote  may  in 
fluencc  and  assist  the  government. 


ly 

CHAPTER  XI 


POLITICAL  PARTIES 


THE  MEA NING  OF  POLITICAL  PARTIES.  In  every 
country  in  which  the  government  is  estabhshed  and  main- 
tained by  the  votes  of  the  people,  it  invariably  happens  that 
organizations  of  the  voters,  known  as  political  parties,  develop. 
There  are  always  differences  of  opinion  among  the  voters  as 
to  what  the  government  ought  and  ought  not  to  do.  The 
voters  who  in  a  general  way  agree  with  one  another  upon 
certain  policies  for  the  government  usually  come  together  and 
form  an  organization  to  promote  these  policies.  The  voters 
who  disagree  with  them  and  hold  other  views  also  organize. 
In  this  way  the  voters  are  usually  divided  into  two  or  more 
political  party  organizations. 

Although  political  parties  sometimes  go  out  of  existence, 
and  parties  with  new  names  and  new  policies  are  formed,  it  is 
a  fact  that  political  parties  are  more  or  less  permanent  or- 
ganizations. Everybody  knows,  for  instance,  of  the  Demo- 
cratic and  Republican  parties,  these  being  the  two  great  or- 
ganizations to  which  most  of  the  voters  of  the  United  States 
belong.  There  are  also  other  smaller  parties,  however,  such 
as  the  Socialist  and  the  Prohibition  parties.  The  principal 
object  of  every  political  party  is  to  secure  the  election  to  the 
various  offices  of  the  government  of  persons  who  belong  to 
the  party,  and  who,  when  they  are  in  office,  will  carry  out  the 
policies  which  their  party  is  in  favor  of.  Every  party  or- 
ganization is,  therefore,  very  active  in  letting  the  voters  of 
the  community  know  what  governmental  policies  the  party 
favors.  In  many  ways  each  party  tries  to  induce  as  many 
voters  as  possible  to  cast  their  ballots  in  favor  of  those  candi- 
dates who  stand  as  representatives  of  the  party  and  its  policies. 

81 


82    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  ORGANIZA  TION  OF  PARTIES.  Political  parties 
are  not  really  a  part  of  the  government.  They  merely  seek 
to  control  the  government  by  getting  members  of  the  party 
into  office.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  each  party  to  organize  with  certain  party  officers  and 
with  certain  rules  that  go\ern  the  acti\'ities  of  the  party. 
This  organization  of  political  parties  is  accomplished  chiefly 
by  means  of  committees.  In  every  party  there  is  a  state 
committee  having  general  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  party 
in  the  state.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are  local  committees 
in  the  different  counties  and  cities  of  the  state.  These  com- 
mittees arrange  for  political  meetings  and  for  addresses  to  be 
delivered  by  party  leaders  and  candidates  for  office.  They 
also  determine  many  important  questions  in  regard  to  the 
method  of  choosing  the  candidates  who  are  to  stand  for  the 
part}'.  In  the  weeks  and  months  that  precede  an  election, 
they  stir  up  general  interest  among  the  voters  and  in  every 
way  try  to  draw  out  as  large  a  vote  as  possible  for  their  candi- 
dates. 

THE  NOMINATION  OF  PARTY  CANDIDATES.  It 
is  absolutely  necessary  that  every  political  party  should, 
before  any  election  is  held,  choose  a  party  candidate  for  each 
office  that  is  to  be  filled  by  election.  If  this  were  not  done,  it 
might  well  happen  that  two  or  more  persons  representing  the 
same  party  would  stand  for  election  to  a  particular  office, 
and  the  voters  of  the  party  would  divide  their  votes  among 
these  candidates.  If  at  the  same  election  it  happened  that 
some  smaller  party  had  only  one  candidate  for  this  office,  and 
if  the  voters  of  this  party  cast  all  of  their  ballots  for  this 
candidate,  the  result  might  be  that  this  candidate  of  the 
smaller  party  would  be  elected.  He  would  not  receive  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast,  but  he  might  receive  a  larger  num- 
"  ver  of  votes  than  any  single  one  of  the  several  candidates  of 
the  larger  party. 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  83 

The  choosing  of  persons  who  are  to  stand  for  the  party  at 
any  election  is  called  the  nomination  of  candidates.  Formerly 
in  Virginia,  as  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  candidates  for 
office  were  invariably  chosen  at  what  were  known  as  party 
conventions.  These  conventions  consisted  of  delegates  who 
represented  the  voters  of  the  party.  At  the  present  time  the 
law  permits  any  political  party  organization  in  Virginia  to 
select  its  candidates  for  office  in  any  way  that  it  chooses. 
Candidates  are,  however,  chosen  in  two  principal  ways.  The 
first  of  these  is  by  the  system  of  party  conventions  just  noted. 
The  second  is  by  a  system  known  as  a  primary  election.  The 
law  now  provides  that  a  primary  election  for  the  nomination 
of  party  candidates  for  state  and  county  offices  shall  be  held 
every  year  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  August.  Another  pri- 
mary election  for  the  nomination  of  candidates  for  city  offices 
is  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  April  in  any  year  in  which  a 
city  election  is  to  be  held.  No  party  is  required  to  choose  its 
candidates  at  these  primary^  elections,  but  every  party  is 
permitted  to  do  so. 

PRIMARY  ELECTIONS.  A  primary  election  is  con- 
ducted in  very  much  the  same  way  as  a  regular  election.  It  is 
held  at  the  same  polling  places,  and  there  are  officers  to  con- 
duct the  election.  When  a  voter  presents  himself  at  the  polls 
on  primary  day,  he  is  compelled  to  declare  which  party  he 
supported  at  the  preceding  general  election.  If  he  declares, 
for  example,  that  he  supported  the  Democratic  party,  he  is 
given  a  ballot  containing  the  names  of  persons  who  want  to 
become  candidates  for  that  party.  Such  a  voter  cannot  de- 
mand, and  he  will  not  be  given,  the  ballot  of  the  Republican 
party.  In  case  he  failed  to  cast  any  ballot  at  the  preceding 
general  election,  he  is  required  to  declare  which  party  he  in- 
tends to  support  at  the  coming  election,  and  he  is  given  the 
ballot  of  that  party.  The  reason  why  every  voter  is  thus  re- 
quired to  declare  himself  is  because  a  primary  election  is 
really  an  election  within  the  party.     It  is  not  just  that  per- 


84    GOVERNMENT  AND  JH)LITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

sons  who  do  not  belong  to  a  particular  party,  and  who  have 
not  supported  and  do  not  intend  to  support  the  candidates 
of  that  party,  should,  nevertheless,  have  the  right  to  assist 
in  deciding  who  shall  be  the  candidates  of  that  party. 

Of  course  this  system  destroys  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
secrecy  of  the  ballot,  for  a  voter  is  not  allowed  to  participate 
in  a  primary  election  unless  he  declares  either  how  he  has  voted 
at  the  last  election  or  how  he  intends  to  vote  at  the  coming 
election.  There  is  in  fact  little  to  prevent  a  voter  from 
deceiving  the  election  officers  in  this  matter,  if  he  wants  to 
do  so.  These  officers  must  usually  accept  his  word.  He 
may,  for  example,  on  primary  day,  wish  to  vote  for  the  candi- 
dates of  the  Democratic  party.  In  order  to  do  so,  he  may 
declare  that  he  supported  that  party  at  the  last  election, 
when  in  fact  he  did  not  do  so.  Or  he  may  declare  that  he 
intends  to  support  that  party  at  the  coming  election,  when  in 
fact  he  has  no  such  intention.  Nobody  knows  how  he  actually 
voted  at  the  last  election;  and  nobod\'  will  know  how  he 
actually  votes  at  the  coming  election.  This  is  a  matter,  there- 
fore, which  is  left  to  each  voter's  conscience.  It  seems  clear, 
however,  that  when  a  man  has  shared  in  choosing  the  candi- 
dates of  a  particular  party,  he  is  certainly  under  a  strong  moral 
obligation  to  support  that  party  at  the  regular  election  which 
follows. 

This  .s>  stem  of  j^rimary  elections  was  established  l)ecause  it 
was  thought  that  party  conventions,  consisting  of  a  limited 
number  of  the  members  of  a  particular  party,  frecjuently 
did  not  represent  the  wishes  of  the  rank  and  file  of  the  party 
in  choosing  party  candidates  for  office.  A  primary  election 
is,  strictly  speaking,  not  an  election  at  all.  It  simply  results 
in  the  selection  of  the  candidates  whose  names  are  placed  on 
the  ballot  as  the  choice  of  the  party  at  the  real  election  which 
follows.  It  is  often  the  case,  however,  that  where  a  great 
majority  of  the  voters  belong  to  one  particular  party,  the 
])rimary  election  is  really  more  important  than  the  regular 


POLl  riC.AL  I'ARTllCS  85 

election.  If  a  man  is  chosen  as  the  candidate  of  such  a  party 
at  the  primary,  he  is  very  nearly  certain  to  be  elected  at  the 
regular  election. 

THE  CANDIDATES  FOR  NOMINATION  AT  PRI- 
MARY ELECTIONS.  In  order  to  become  a  candidate  for 
nomination  at  a  primary  election  (which  means  that,  if  success- 
ful at  the  primary  election,  the  candidate  becomes  the  party 
candidate  at  the  regular  election)  a  person  must  formally  de- 
clare his  intention  to  become  such  a  candidate,  and  he  must  be 
supported  by  a  petition  signed  by  a  number  of  voters.  If  he 
is  a  candidate  for  a  state  office,  such  as  the  governorship  for 
example,  two  hundred  and  fifty  voters  must  sign  his  petition. 
If  he  is  a  candidate  for  a  city  or  county  office,  fifty  voters 
must  sign  his  petition. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Try  to  find  out  which  poHtical  party  is  the  stronger  in  your  com- 
munity. Are  most  of  your  county  or  city  officers  Democrats  or  Republi- 
cans? To  what  political  party  do  the  present  Governor  and  the  other 
state  officers  belong? 

2.  Explain  how  political  parties  are  organized.  Why  is  it  necessary 
for  them  to  organize?  What  powers  and  duties  have  the  party  com- 
mittees? Find  out,  if  you  can,  what  party  committees  there  are  in  your 
community. 

3.  Explain  why  it  is  necessary  for  parties  to  choose  candidates  before 
the  election.  What  would  be  the  probable  result  if  they  did  not  do  so? 
In  what  two  ways  are  party  candidates  chosen?  Were  your  present  city 
or  county  officers  nominated  at  a  party  convention  or  at  a  direct  primary 
election?  In  what  way  were  the  present  Governor  and  other  elected  state 
officers  nominated? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  primary  election?  When  are  such  elections 
held?  How  are  the  voters  of  the  Republican  party  prevented  from  voting 
in  a  primary  election  of  the  Democratic  party,  and  trice  versa? 

5.  How  does  a  person  become  a  candidate  for  the  choice  of  his  party  at 
a  primary  election? 


CHAPTER  XII 
1'HK  STATE  LEGISLATURE 


THE  THREE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 
There  are  certain  duties  which  the  government  undertakes  to 
perform  for  the  people  of  the  state  as  a  whole.  It  is  im- 
possible to  enumerate  the  complete  list  of  such  duties.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  in  a  general  way  that  the  state  government 
makes  and  enforces  such  laws  and  undertakes  such  services 
as  seem  inappropriate  to  be  regulated  by  the  local  govern- 
ments, such  as  counties,  towns,  and  cities.  For  the  purpose 
of  making  state  laws  there  is  a  group  of  representatives  who 
constitute  what  is  known  as  the  legislative  department  of  the 
government.  There  is  another  group  of  state  officers  who 
see  that  the  laws  are  enforced  and  who  manage  certain  services 
which  the  government  of  the  entire  state  carries  on.  This 
group  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  executive  department 
of  the  government.  There  is  still  a  third  group  of  officers 
whose  duty  it  is  to  explain  and  apply  the  law  and  to  settle 
controversies  between  persons  under  the  la\\'.  This  group 
consists  of  judges  and  is  known  as  the  judiciary  department. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  GENERAL  ASSEM- 
BL  Y.  The  legislative  department  of  the  state  government  is 
divided  into  two  bodies,  or  houses,  as  they  are  called.  Every 
proposal  for  law  that  is  agreed  to  by  either  one  of  these  houses 
must  also  be  agreed  to  by  the  other  before  it  becomes  a  law. 
This  prevents  laws  from  being  hastily  made.  One  of  these 
houses  is  known  as  the  House  of  Delegates,  the  other  as  the 
Senate.  Together  they  constitute  what  is  known  as  the 
General  Assembly  of  Virginia. 

The  constitution  declares  that  the  House  of  Delegates  shall 
never  consist  of  less  than  ninety  nor  more  than  one  hundred 

86 


THE  STATE  LEClSLA'niRE  87 

members,  and  that  the  number  of  senators  shall  not  be  less 
than  thirty-three  nor  more  than  forty.  The  House  of  Dele- 
gates is  therefore  much  larger  than  the  Senate.  For  the 
purpose  of  electing  delegates  the  entire  state  is  divided  into 
what  is  known  as  house  districts.  The  General  Assembly 
itself  determines  what  counties  and  cities  shall  be  grouped  to- 
gether to  form  a  district.  It  also  determines  the  number 
of  delegates  to  be  elected  in  each  district.  As  nearly  as  possi- 
ble each  delegate  represents  the  same  number  of  people. 
Populous  districts,  whether  consisting  of  a  single  large  city 
or  large  county  or  of  a  group  of  counties  and  cities,  are  given 
more  than  one  delegate.  In  the  majority  of  districts,  how- 
ever, only  a  single  delegate  is  elected.  The  members  of  the 
House  of  Delegates  are  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  several 
districts  in  November  of  every  odd-numbered  year — that  is, 
in  1917,  1919,  1921,  and  so  on. 

For  the  election  of  senators  the  state  is  divided  into  sena- 
torial districts.  These  districts  are  either  much  larger  than 
the  house  districts  or  else  they  have  fewer  senators  than  dele- 
gates. Each  senator  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
Provision  is  made,  however,  so  that  half  of  the  whole  number 
of  senators  are  elected  in  November  of  every  odd-numbered 
year,  at  the  same  time  that  delegates  are  chosen. 

The  General  Assembly  meets  in  the  January  following  the 
November  elections — that  is,  once  in  every  two  years.  Each 
senator  and  delegate  is  paid  five  hundred  dollars  per  session. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  General  Assembly  from  wasting  its 
time,  the  constitution  requires  that  it  shall  sit  for  only  sixty 
days.  In  case  of  necessity,  however,  the  session  may  be 
extended  thirty  days  longer,  provided  that  three-fifths  of 
the  members  of  each  house  agree  to  this  extension.  More- 
over, under  extraordinary  circumstances  the  Governor  may 
call  the  General  Assembly  in  extra  session. 

Each  house  of  the  General  Assembly  has  the  power  to  choose 
its  own  officers,  and  to  determine  the  rules  by  which  its  de- 


cS.s    (.()VI-:RNMEN'r  AND  PULITRS  IN   NIKCIMA 

bates  and  other  affairs  must  be  conducted.  The  one  exception 
to  this  is  that  the  Lieutenant-(^»ovcrnor  presides  over  the 
Senate.  The  presiding  offi(x>r  of  the  House  of  Delegates  is 
called  the  Speaker.  In  addition  to  the  presiding  officer  there 
are  a  number  of  other  officers  and  clerks  in  each  house. 

Each  member  has  his  own  desk,  and  these  desks  are  ar- 
ranged in  rows  facing  the  presiding  officer's  chair.  Visitors 
are  usually  prohibited  from  coming  upon  the  "floor"  of  either 
house;  but  galleries  are  provided  to  which  the  public  is  freely 
admitted. 

THE  MAKING  OF  THE  LA  WS.  Nearly  every  member 
who  is  elected  to  the  General  Assembly  goes  to  the  capital 
with  the  idea  of  getting  certain  measures  enacted  into  laws. 
Sometimes  the  people  who  elect  him  express  their  desire  to 
have  this  or  that  law  passed.  Sometimes  an  individual 
citizen  asks  a  member  to  present  a  proposition  for  a  law. 
Frequently  also  the  Governor  and  the  other  important  officers, 
who  are  thoroughly  in  touch  with  the  needs  of  the  state,  de- 
sire certain  laws  enacted. 

Every  member  of  either  house  has  the  right  to  introduce 
any  measure  that  he  sees  fit.  The  measure  when  introduced 
is  known  as  a  bill.  Instead  of  being  taken  up  at  once  for  de- 
bate, every  bill  is  referred  to  an  appropriate  committee.  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  a  number  of  standing  committees  in  each 
house,  and  each  committee  has  for  its  consideration  measures 
that  relate  to  one  particular  branch  of  the  government's  work. 
In  the  committee  room  the  proposed  measure  is  talked  over 
and  worked  over.  Often  the  committee  holds  what  is  known 
as  a  hearing,  at  which  persons  who  are  interested  may  appear 
and  favor  or  oppose  the  measure.  Later  the  committee 
makes  a  report  to  the  house,  recommending  either  that  the 
measure  be  passed  or  that  it  be  voted  down. 

When  the  committee  has  reported  a  bill,  the  house  opens 
debate  on  it  after  it  has  been  printed  and  read  on  three 
.separate  days.     The  bill  may  be  amended  by  the  house  in 


THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE  89 

any  way,  or  it  may  be  rejected.  The  house  is  largely  in- 
fluenced, however,  by  the  report  of  the  committee  which  has 
made  a  special  in\estigation  of  the  subject.  In  case  the  bill 
is  passed  in  one  house,  it  nmst  then  be  sent  to  the  other  house 
where  it  goes  through  a  very  similar  process.  In  the  end  it 
may  be  approved,  or  amended,  or  voted  down. 

This  is  the  manner  in  which  every  measure  proceeds  through 
the  legislature.  The  committee  system  makes  it  possible  to 
handle  many  propositions  in  the  short  term  of  sixty  days.  It 
also  provides  for  a  careful  consideration  of  every  proposal. 

THE  PO  WERS  OF  THE  GENERA L  A  SSEMBL  Y.  The 
General  Assembly  may  pass  any  law  that  it  is  not  forbidden 
by  the  constitution  to  pass,  and  which  does  not  conflict  with 
the  laws  made  by  the  national  government  at  Washington. 
It  is  necessary  for  the  constitution  to  specify  only  those  things 
which  the  legislature  may  not  do.  Chief  among  the  restric- 
tions placed  upon  the  legislature  are  those  which  secure  to  the 
people  certain  rights  which  we  ha\e  already  discussed,  such, 
for  example,  as  the  freedom  of  speech  and  religion,  and  the 
right  not  to  ha\'e  property  taken  from  them  by  the  govern- 
ment wathout  just  compensation. 

The  legislature  is  also  prohibited  from  passing  what  is 
known  as  "special  acts"  in  regard  to  a  long  series  of  subjects. 
This  is  to  prevent  the  time  of  the  law-makers  from  being 
taken  up  in  enacting  law^s  for  a  particular  locality,  or  a  special 
individual,  and  also  to  secure  to  every  person  in  the  state 
equal  rights  before  the  law. 

Aside  from  these  restrictions  upon  the  powers  of  the  legis- 
lature, the  General  Assembly  may  pass  any  act  it  pleases. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  examine  in  detail  what  the  nature 
of  these  laws  is.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  they  regulate, 
among  numerous  other  things,  business  relations,  property 
relations,  and  the  marriage  relations  of  the  people  of  the  state, 
and  provide  for  the  raising  of  taxes,  the  educational  interests, 
and  the  affairs  of  railwa\s  and  other  corporations. 


90    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLrPICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  STATE  CAPITOL.  The  General  Assembly  meets 
at  Richmond,  the  capital  city  of  the  state.  In  a  handsome 
])ark,  beautifully  laid  out  and  containing  splendid  statues 
and  monuments,  stands  the  capitol  l)uilding  in  which  the 
legislature  holds  its  sessions.  The  central  portion  of  this 
Iniiiding  was  built  in  1833.  Within  its  walls  have  been  heard 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  that  haxe  figured  in  the 


rilK  HALL  OK  IHK  IlOUSl,  OF  OELLGA  I  KS 
Showing  ihe  desks  at  which  the  members  sit  during  the  sessions  of  the  General 

Assembly 


history  of  the  United  States.  Here,  too,  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederacy  sat.  Because  of  its  age  and  the  many  historical 
associations  that  surround  it,  this  building  has  become 
very  dear  to  the  people  of  Virginia.  With  the  growth  of  the 
business   of   the   governnient,    li(A\-e\er,    it   became   entirely 


THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE        .  91 

inadetiLiate,  and  some  years  ago  it  was  found  necessary  to  add 
two  large  wings  to  the  central  structure.  The  original 
building  was,  however,  preserved.  Even  with  these  addi- 
tional wings,  the  capitol  building  is  too  small  to  accommodate 
all  the  officers  of  the  state  government. 

INFLUENCES  UPON  OUR  LAW-MAKERS.  When  a 
man  has  been  chosen  to  the  legislature  many  people  suppose 
that  it  is  a  \ery  simple  matter  for  him  always  to  vote  honestly 
and  intelligently.  Perhaps  it  ought  to  be;  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  a  great  many  influences  are  brought  to  bear  upon 
members  of  the  legislature  which  most  of  us  do  not  fully 
appreciate.  In  the  first  place,  a  member  usually  desires  to  be 
re-elected  at  the  end  of  his  term  of  office.  Sometimes  the 
voters  who  have  elected  him  are  controlled  by  a  man  known 
as  the  political  boss  of  the  community.  The  member  realizes 
that  he  must,  to  some  extent  at  least,  act  so  as  to  please  this 
boss  if  he  is  to  hope  for  re-election. 

In  the  second  place,  when  a  measure  is  proposed  that  is 
disadvantageous  to  some  large  corporation,  or  to  the  people 
engaged  in  a  certain  kind  of  business  (as,  for  instance,  the 
liquor  business),  all  sorts  of  efforts  are  made  to  induce  the 
law-makers  to  ignore  the  interests  of  the  people.  Shrewd 
lawyers  and  other  crafty  men  are  sent  to  Richmond  to  use 
their  influence  upon  the  members  of  the  legislature,  and  to 
convince  them,  if  possible,  that  the  proposed  measure  is  7iot 
for  the  interests  of  the  people.  This  is  called  lobbying. 
Many  bad  laws  are  made,  and  many  good  measures  fail  to  be 
enacted  by  reason  of  the  influence  which  lobbyists  frequently 
use.  It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  all  lobbying  is 
of  this  kind.  Many  good  m.en  also  go  before  the  committees 
of  the  legislature  and  lobby  with  its  members  to  secure  the 
passage  of  wise  laws. 

In  the  third  place,  the  law-makers  are  often  severely 
criticised  by  the  newspapers,  and  sometimes  this  criticism  is 
unjust.     It  is^  very  difficult  matter  for  a  man  in  public  life 


92    GOVERNMENT  AND  roLIlICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  please  e\'cnl)(Kl>'  and  to  do  onh-  what  is  right.  Our  law- 
makers have  no  easy  task.  If  some  of  them  do  not  serve  the 
people  as  they  should,  we  ought  to  remember  that  we  are 
partly  responsible  for  this.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  people  in 
every  community  to  choose  as  their  representatives  in  the 
law-making  body  of  the  state  the  most  intelligent  and  the 
most  honorable  men  that  can  be  induced  to  serve.  And  it  is 
the  duty  of  a  delegate  or  senator  thus  chosen  to  follow  his 
sound  judgment  on  e\cry  question  before  him.  He  should 
consider  always  only  the  best  interests  of  the  state,  regardless 
of  his  personal  ambitions,  and  in  spite  of  the  influences  that 
sometimes  seek  at  times  to  turn  him  aside. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  the  law-making  body  of  the  state  of  Virginia  called?  Into 
what  two  branches  is  it  di\i(l(Hl?  Docs  your  city  or  county  constitute  a 
house  district  by  itself?  If  not,  find  out  what  otlicr  communities  are 
grouped  with  it  to  form  your  house  district.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  how 
many  representatives  your  district  has  in  the  House  of  Delegates.  Do 
you  know  the  names  of  any  present  representatives? 

2.  If  you  live  in  a  county,  find  out  what  other  counties  are  grouped 
with  yours  to  form  your  senatorial  district.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  find  out 
whether  your  city  constitutes  a  senatorial  district  by  itself.  If  not,  what 
other  communities  are  grouped  with  it?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  the  name  of 
the  present  senator,  or  senators,  from  your  district. 

3.  Who  presides  over  the  Senate?  Over  the  House  of  Delegates? 
Have  you  ever  been  to  the  capitol  building  at  Kichmond?  If  so,  describe 
the  park.  Describe  the  building.  If  you  have  seen  the  chambers  in 
which  the  houses  meet,  describe  them.  Have  you  ever  seen  the  houses 
in  session? 

4.  Suppose  you  desired  to  have  a  certain  law  passed,  how  would  you  go 
about  it?  Explain  in  full  how  such  a  measure  would  become  a  law  after 
being  introduced  into  one  of  the  houses  by  some  member.  What  is  meant 
by  the  committee  system? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  political  boss?  TVTiat  is  meant  by  lobbying? 
Explain  how  the  bosses  and  lobbyists  hinder  the  work  of  the  law-makers. 
How  can  the  people  of  any  community  prevent  this? 

6.  When  does  the  next  General  Assembly  meet?  How  long  will  it 
probably  sit?  Might  it  sit  longer?  Why  is  the  length  of  the  session  of 
the  General  Assembly  limited  by  the  constitution?  ■> 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS 

STATE  AND  LOCAL  EXECUTIVE  OFFICERS.  After 
the  laws  have  been  passed  by  the  legislature,  it  is  necessary 
that  there  should  be  officers  to  see  that  these  laws  are  carried 
out.  The  enforcement  of  both  state  and  local  laws  is  in- 
trusted very  largely  to  local  officers  chosen  in  the  various 
communities  of  the  state.  For  example,  it  is  the  General 
Assembly  that  makes  the  laws  defining  crimes  and  providing 
punishment  for  those  who  commit  them;  but  it  is  the  city 
police  or  the  county  sheriff  and  constables  who  arrest  offenders 
who  violate  these  laws.  In  the  actual  enforcement  of  the 
laws  the  indi\idual  in  any  community  usually  comes  in  con- 
tact w^th  county  and  city  officers  rather  than  with  state  offi- 
cers. In  addition  to  these  local  officers,  however,  there  are 
certain  state  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to  supervise  and  assist 
the  local  officers  in  the  execution  of  some  of  the  laws  of  the 
state  and  to  execute  directly  certain  laws  which  are  not  in- 
trusted to  local  officers  at  all. 

THE  ELECTED  STATE  OFFICERS.  At  the  head  of 
the  executive  department  of  the  state  government  stands  the 
Governor.  During  the  colonial  period  of  our  history  the 
Governor  of  Virginia  was  appointed  by  the  crown  in  England. 
After  our  indejiendence  he  was  for  many  years  chosen  by  the 
General  Assembly;  but  since  1851  he  has  been  elected  directly 
by  the  voters.  The  Governor  is  now  elected  in  November  of 
an  odd-numbered  year  (1917,  1921,  etc.).  He  enters  upon 
the  duties  of  his  office  on  the  first  day  of  the  following 
February,  and  remains  in  office  for  a  period  of  four  years. 
He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  least  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  must  have  resided  in  Virginia  for  at  least  five  years 

93 


94    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

preceding  his  election.  At  the  time  of  the  Governor's  elec- 
tion there  is  also  elected  an  officer  known  as  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  who,  in  case  the  Governor  dies  or  is  unable  to  per- 
form his  duties,  takes  the  place  of  the  Governor.  The  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor presides  over  the  Senate. 

The  people  of  the  state  also  elect  an  Attorney  General,  a 
Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth,  a  State  Treasurer,  a  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  and  a  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture and  Immigration.  These  officers  are  chosen  at  the 
same  time  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  Governor.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  elected  officers  there  are,  as  we  shall  see,  a  number 
of  important  state  officers  who  are  appointed  either  by  the 
legislature  or  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

THE  GOVERNOR.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Goa- 
ernor  are  both  numerous  and  important.  In  the  first  place, 
although  he  is  the  chief  officer  of  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government,  he  nevertheless  has  a  considerable  share  in  the 
making  of  the  laws.  He  is  empowered,  for  instance,  to  send 
what  is  known  as  messages  to  the  legislature,  and  in  these 
messages  he  recommends  that  certain  laws  be  passed.  The 
General  Assembly  is  not  compelled  to  act  upon  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Governor,  but  the  weight  of  his  influence 
is  large,  and  it  is  simply  a  fact  that  the  legislature  does  usually 
give  careful  attention  to  his  proposals.  The  Governor  also 
usually  advises  with  the  members  and  the  committees  of  the 
legislature  in  respect  to  important  laws  that  are  being  drawn 
up.  Before  any  bill  that  has  passed  both  houses  of  the  legis- 
lature can  become  a  law,  it  must  be  signed  by  the  Governor. 
If  he  does  not  approve  the  bill,  he  may  refuse  to  sign  it  and 
return  it  to  the  legislature  with  a  statement  of  his  objections 
to  the  measure.  This  is  called  the  Governor's  veto.  In 
case  the  Governor  vetoes  a  bill,  it  cannot  become  a  law  unless 
it  is  again  passed  by  both  houses  of  the  legislature  by  a 
majority  vote  of  two-thirds.      In  addition  to  these  powers,  it 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS  95 

has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  Governor  may  at  any 
time  call  an  extra  session  of  the  General  Assembly. 

In  the  second  place ^  as  head  of  the  executive  department, 
the  constitution  requires  that  the  Governor  "shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed."  To  this  end  it  is  his 
duty  to  keep  himself  informed  as  to  how  the  other  officers  of 
the  state  are  performing  their  duties.  He  may  require  any 
information  of  them,  or  he  may  at  any  time  inspect  their 
books.  When  the  General  Assembly  is  not  in  session,  he  has 
the  power  to  suspend  any  officer  at  the  capital,  except  the 
Lieutenant-Governor,  for  misbehavior,  or  because  he  is  not 
properly  performing  his  duty.  He  is  required  to  report  the 
whole  circumstances  of  such  a  suspension  to  the  next  General 
Assembly,  which  has  power  either  to  restore  the  officer  or  to 
remove  him  entirely.  The  Governor  also  has  power  to  name 
certain  of  the  important  executive  officers  of  the  government 
who  are  not  subject  to  election  by  the  voters  or  to  appoint- 
ment by  the  General  Assembly  itself. 

In  the  third  place,  the  Governor  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  state  militia.  As  such,  he  has  power  to  call  out  these 
forces  when  they  are  occasionally  needed.  As  we  have  seen, 
the  militia  is  used  whenever  the  ordinary  police  officers  or 
constables  are  unable  to  suppress  a  riot  or  other  unusual  dis- 
turbance in  a  community. 

In  the  fourth  place,  the  Governor  has  power  to  pardon  per- 
sons who  have  been  convicted  of  crimes.  When  once  a  case 
has  been  finally  decided  by  the  courts  it  is  impossible  for  it 
to  be  taken  up  again  by  the  courts.  Occasionally,  however, 
it  happens  that  for  one  reason  or  another  a  person  who  has 
been  convicted  of  crime  ought  not  to  be  punished  to  the  full 
extent  of  his  sentence.  The  Governor  has  the  power  to  re- 
lease a  prisoner  from  punishment  or  to  shorten  his  sentence 
or  to  remit  his  fine.  He  does  this,  however,  only  in  ex- 
ceptional cases.  He  does  not  allow  those  who  ought  to  be 
punished  to  play  upon  his  sympathies. 


96    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  It 
is  the  duly  of  this  officer  to  keep  a  daily  record  of  the  acts  of 
the  Governor  and  to  perform  services  of  a  varied  character  in 
connection  with  the  enforcement  of  the  laws.  He  keeps  the 
great  seal  of  Virginia,  and  many  important  records  are  cared 
for  in  his  office. 

THE  ATTORNEY  GENERAL.  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  officers  who  are  required  to  execute  the  laws  are  not 
able  to  decide  exactly  what  this  or  that  provision  of  the  law 
means.     The  Attorney  General  is  the  officer  whose  duty  it  is 


CAPITOL  SOUARK,    RICHMOND,    VIRGINIA 

Showing  the  west  entrance  of  the  Capitol  building,  where  the  General  Assembly 

sits  and  where  most  of  the  state  executive  offices  are  located. 

The  Governor's  mansion  is  seen  dimly  in  the  background 


to  give  his  opinion  to  the  Go\crnor  and  other  officers  at  the 
seat  of  government  on  questions  of  law.  In  certain  cases, 
moreover,  when  the  state  of  Virginia  brings  suit  against  a 
person  or  is  sued,  the  Attorney  General  is  the  officer  who 
represents  the  government  before  the  courts.     Whenever  a 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS  97 

person  who  luis  bix-u  coiuictcd  of  crime  appeals  lo  the  highest 
court  of  the  state  (the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals),  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  Attorney  General  to  prosecute  the  ])risoncr  be- 
fore this  court.     These  are  the  principal  duties  of  the  Attorney  . 
General.  XI  ^ 

STATE  FINANCIAL  OFFICERS.  The  State  Auditor/  ^ 
who  is  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  is  the  officer  who  receives  the  money  that  is  collected 
in  the  various  communities  of  the  state  for  the  purpose  of 
defraying  the  expenses  of  the  state  go\'ernment.  He  deposits 
this  money  with  the  State  Treasurer,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
elected  by  the  people.  When  any  officer  or  person  has  a 
claim  against  the  state,  it  is  the  Auditor  who  examines  his 
claim  and  issues  an  order  or  warrant  directing  the  Treasurer 
to  pay  the  claim  in  question.  There  is  also  a  Second  Auditor, 
chosen  by  the  General  Assembly,  who  performs,  with  reference 
to  certain  special  funds,  duties  similar  to  those  of  the  Auditor. 

STA  TE  DEPARTMENT  OF  ED UCA  TION.  The  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  public  school  system  of  Virginia  is  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  He  exercises  general 
super^-ision  over  the  schools  of  the  state  and  seeks  in  every 
way  to  encourage  the  improvement  of  schools  and  to  awaken 
interest  in  public  education.  He  uses  his  influence  with  the 
legislature  to  secure  appropriations  for  the  schools  and  to 
have  wise  laws  enacted  in  the  interest  of  the  public  school 
system. 

The  Superintendent  is  assisted  and  controlled  by  the  State  . 
Board  of  Education.  This  board  consists  of  the  Superin- 
tendent himself,  who  is  its  president,  the  Governor,  the 
Attorney  General,  three  members  who  are  chosen  from  the 
faculties  of  the  state  institutions  of  higher  learning,  and  one 
county  and  one  city  superintendent  of  schools.  The  board 
has  very  large  powers  over  the  educational  system  of  the 
state.  It  makes  many  rules  and  regulations  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  in  addition  to  the  laws  that  are  enacted  by 


98    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  legislature.  One  of  its  most  important  functions  is  to  se- 
lect the  text-books  tli;il  may  be  used  in  the  public  schools 
ihroughout  the  state. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  is  also  assisted 
in  many  ways  by  the  State  Board  of  Examiners,  This  board 
consists  of  five  members  appointed  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  For  the  work  of  this  board  the  entire  state  is 
divided  into  five  circuits,  one  of  which  is  assigned  to  eiich  ex- 
aminer. It  is  the  duty  of  the  members  of  this  board  to 
examine  and  issue  licenses  to  those  who  desire  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools.  They  also  tra\el  about  in  their  circuits  hold- 
ing teachers'  institutes  and  forming  citizens'  leagues  for  the 
purpose  of  arousing  interest  in,  and  advancing  the  cause  of, 
I)ublic  education. 

In  every  communit)'  of  the  state  there  is  a  local  school 
officer  called  the  division  superintendent  of  schools.  Al- 
though these  division  superintendents  exercise  their  powers 
only  in  their  respective  localities,  they  are  nevertheless  ap- 
pointed by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  their  appointments 
being  subject  to  the  approval  of  a  vote  of  the  Senate. 
In  a  sense,  therefore,  they  represent  the  state  government 
rather  than  the  local  government  of  their  respective  com- 
munities. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  IM- 
MIGRAJTION.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture and  Immigration  to  collect  information  in  regard  to 
the  climate,  soil,  crops,  and  minerals  of  the  state  and  to  fur- 
nish this  information  to  farmers  and  others  who  desire  it.  He 
has  charge  of  the  inspection  of  fertilizers  and  of  seeds,  of  the 
farmers'  institutes,  and  of  certain  experiment  stations.  In 
many  ways  he  encourages  and  assists  the  farmer  and  the  cattle 
raiser.  He  endeavors  also  to  show  to  people  who  are  looking 
for  a  place  of  settlement  the  natural  advantages  that  are  to 
be  found  in  the  state  of  Virginia.  The  Commissioner  is 
assisted  and  directed  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Im- 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS  99 

migration,  which  consists  of  the  President  of  the  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute  and  of  one  member  from  each  of  the  ten 
congressional  districts  into  which  the  state  is  divided.  Every 
member  must  be  a  practical  farmer  and  is  appointed  by  the 
Governor  for  a  term  of  four  years,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Senate. 

In  connection  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Immigration  there  is  a  Division  of  Dairy  and  Pure  Food  In- 
spection. This  division  is  in  charge  of  the  Dairy  and  Food 
Commissioner,  an  officer  who  is  appointed  by  the  Governor 
and  the  Senate.  The  duties  of  the  division  are  perhaps 
sufficiently  indicated  by  its  name. 

THE  STATE  CORPORATION  COMMISSION.  The 
members  of  this  commission  are  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  entire  General  Assembly. 
They  hold  office  for  terms  of  six  years.  This  commission  is 
one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  state  executive 
organization.  It  has  the  powder  to  issue  what  are  known  as 
charters  of  incorporation.  Whene\'er  a  number  of  persons 
wish  to  join  themsehes  together  for  the  purpose  of  conducting 
a  business,  or  a  charitable,  social,  or  other  organization,  they 
can  apply  to  the  Corporation  Commission  for  a  charter. 
Having  received  such  a  charter,  they  can  act  just  as  if  they 
were  a  single  person  instead  of  a  group  of  persons.  The 
laws  regulate  the  conditions  under  which  charters  of  this  kind 
may  be  issued. 

The  Corporation  Commission  also  has  many  important 
duties  to  perform  in  connection  wuth  the  supervision  of  per- 
sons and  corporations  engaged  in  the  insurance  business  and 
the  banking  business.  The  government  places  such  business 
as  this  under  special  regulations  in  order  to  protect  the  people 
from  mismanagement  and  frauds. 

We  have  already  noted  that  the  government  regulates 
the  rates  and  the  service  of  railway,  telegraph,  and  telephone 


100    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

companies.  This  is  the  most  important  power  that  is  con- 
ferred upon  the  Corporation  Commission. 

THE  BUREAU  OF  LABOR  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
STATISTICS.  This  bureau  is  in  charge  of  a  Commissioner 
of  Labor  and  Industrial  Statistics  appointed  by  the  Governor 
and  Senate.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  bureau  to  gather  informa- 
tion and  make  investigations  concerning  the  working  and 
living  conditions  of  laborers  in  the  state.  It  is  also  charged 
with  the  enforcement  of  those  laws  which  are  enacted  for  the 
benefit  of  persons  employed  in  labor. 

STATE  HIGHWAY  COMMISSIONER.  This  officer 
is  appointed  by  the  Governor,  wnth  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
and  has  charge  of  the  appropriations  which  the  state  govern- 
ment makes  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roads. 
He  also  gives  information  and  assistance  to  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  subject  of  ro^id-building,  and  otherwise  en- 
forces the  laws  of  the  state  dealing  with  this  matter.  He  sends 
forces  of  convicts  to  various  parts  of  the  state  where  they  are 
needed  for  the  construction  of  roads;  but  when  convicts  are 
employed  in  this  work  they  remain  under  the  care  and  man- 
agement of  the  superintendent  of  the  penitentiary. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  HEALTH.  This  depart- 
ment is  controlled  by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  consisting  of 
twelve  members  appointed  by  the  Governor.  Under  the 
general  direction  of  this  board,  the  Commissioner  of  Health, 
who  is  also  appointed  by  the  Governor,  is  in  active  charge  of 
the  execution  of  many  of  the  health  laws  of  the  state.  The 
department  maintains  laboratories  in  Richmond  for  the  study 
of  the  methods  of  preventing  and  curing  dangerous  diseases, 
and  for  the  free  examination  of  specimens  which  are  sent  to  the 
department  by  physicians  throughout  the  state.  By  means 
of  lectures,  publications,  and  through  the  daily  press,  the  de- 
partment distributes  a  great  deal  of  information  on  the  sub- 
ject of  diseases  and  the  methods  of  preventing  them.  It  also 
supplies,  at  the  smallest  possible  cost,  antitoxin  for  the  cure  of 


1  HE  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS  101 

diphtheria,  the  \'irus  that  is  used  for  vaccination,  and  dis- 
infectants that  are  used  for  fumigating.  This  is  done  not 
only  to  lessen  the  cost  of  these  things  to  the  people  but  also  to 
insure  their  quality.  Every  ph>sician  iti  the  state  is  required 
to  report  to  some  local  officer  all  cases  of  dangerous  diseases 
that  come  to  his  attention,  and  these  local  officers  in  turn 
furnish  this  information  to  the  state  department.  The  de- 
partment also  is  required  to  inspect  every  hospital  in  the  state 
at  least  once  a  year.  The  State  Board  of  Health  has  very 
large  power  to  make  regulations  of  various  kinds  to  prevent 
those  things  that  are  dangerous  to  the  public  health.  These 
regulations  ha\e  the  same  force  as  laws  enacted  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly. 

STATE  INSTITUTIONS  AND  PRISONS.  The  gov- 
ernment maintains  at  Richmond  a  penitentiary  in  which  are 
confined  all  those  persons  who  have  committed  grave  offences 
against  the  laws  of  the  state.  This  prison  is  in  charge  of  five 
directors  who  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  the  Senate. 
This  board  appoints  the  superintendent  of  the  penitentiary, 
and  the  surgeons  and  other  officers  that  are  necessary  for  the 
management  of  the  prison.  Some  of  the  prisoners  who  are 
sent  to  the  penitentiary  are  taken  care  of  on  what  is  known  as 
the  state  farm,  which  is  in  charge  of  a  superintendent  ap- 
pointed by  the  penitentiary  board. 

The  state  government  maintains  hospitals  for  the  insane  at 
Williamsburg,  Staunton,  Marion,  and  Petersburg,  Each  of 
these  hospitals  is  in  charge  of  a  board  of  directors  appointed 
by  the  Governor  and  the  Senate,  while  a  general  board,  con- 
sisting of  all  of  the  members  of  these  special  boards,  has  gen- 
eral supervision  over  all  these  hospitals.  There  is  also  a 
Commissioner  of  the  State  Hospitals  for  the  Insane,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  Governor,  and  who  has  general  direction 
of  the  expenditure  of  moneys  for  the  hospitals  and  the  keep- 
ing of  their  records. 


102    C.OVKKNMENT  AND  POLl'llCS  liN  VIRGINIA 

THE  BOARD  OF  CHARITIES  AND  CORRECTIONS. 
This  board  consists  of  five  members  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor. It  is  the  duty  of  the  board,  or  of  the  secretary  whom 
they  employ,  to  visit  at  least  once  a  year  every  state,  county, 
city,  or  private  institution  which  carries  on  any  charitable 
work  or  in  which  prisoners  are  confined.  This  board  has  very 
little  power  over  these  institutions,  but  it  examines  into  their 
condition,  gives  advice  as  to  matters  that  need  correction, 
and  prevents  many  objectionable  things  that  might  go  on  in 
these  institutions  without  being  known  to  the  public. 

OTHER  STATE  OFFICERS.  There  are  a  few  other 
officers  of  the  state  government  whose  duties  it  seems  un- 
necessary to  describe  in  detail.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Register  of  the  Land  Office,  and  the  Superintendent 
of  Printing,  who  are  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly,  and 
the  Adjutant  General,  the  Secretary  of  Virginia  Military 
Records,  the  Governor's  Military  Staff,  the  Boards  of  Visitors 
of  various  state  institutions  of  higher  learning,  the  Board  of 
Fisheries,  and  the  Boards  of  Examiners  for  pharmacists, 
dentists,  graduate  nurses,  veterinarians,  embalmers,  and 
lawyers. 


CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  If  the  General  Assembly  lays  a  tax  upon  certain  property  throuphout 
the  state,  what  officers  in  your  community  would  collect  this  tax?  If 
a  man  commits  a  crime  in  your  community,  is  he  arrested  by  a  local  or  a 
state  officer?  Has  he  violated  a  local  or  a  state  law?  Explain,  then, 
how  state  laws  are  often  executed  by  local  officers. 

2.  Mention  all  the  state  officers  who  are  elected  by  the  people.  Find 
out  the  names  of  as  many  of  these  officers  as  you  can.  Who  is  the  present 
Governor  of  Virginia?  How  and  when  was  he  chosen?  How  much  longer 
has  he  to  serve?  Do  you  know  anything  about  his  life?  To  what  political 
party  does  he  belong?     How  was  he  nonunated  by  his  party? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  Governor's  message?  \Miy  does  the  law  re- 
quire him  to  send  a  message?  What  is  meant  by  his  veto?  How  may  it 
be  overcome? 


'nil':  EXECUTION  OF  THE  LAWS 


103 


4.  What  control  does  the  Governor  have  over  the  other  executive 
officers?  ^^'hat  is  his  positifin  in  the  militia?  What  is  meant  by  his 
pardoning  power?  If  he  should  die  in  office,  who  would  succeed  him? 
What  duty  has  the  Lieutenant-Governor? 

5.  Mention  all  the  important  state  officers  who  are  appointed  by  the 
Governor.  What  officers  are  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly?  Find 
out  the  names  of  as  many  of  these  officers  as  you  can. 

6.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State?  The  Attorney  Gen- 
eral?    The  State  Auditor?    The  State  Treasurer?    The  Second  Auditor? 

7.  Describe  the  organization  and  duties  of  the  State  Department  of 
Education.  Who  is  the  present  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction? 
Find  out  the  names  of  the  present  members  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. Who  is  your  division  superintendent  of  schools?  WTien  and  how 
was  he  appointed?     How  long  has  he  to  serve? 

8.  Describe  the  organization  and  duties  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  Immigration.  Ihe  State  Corporation  Commission.  The 
Bureau  of  Labor.  The  State  Highway  Department.  The  Department 
of  Public  Health. 

9.  How  are  state  institutions  and  prisons  managed?  What  is  the  Board 
of  Charities  and  Corrections? 


/\ 


^\ 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  STATE  COURTS 


THE  NECESSITY  FOR  COURTS.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  people  will  sometimes  differ  in  opinion  as  to  what 
the  law  realh'  means,  and  how  laws  may  sometimes  conflict 
with  one  another.  Moreover,  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  find 
out  the  facts  about  a  matter  which  the  law  attempts  to  regu- 
late. For  instance,  a  dispute  may  arise  as  to  which  of  two 
parties  owns  a  piece  of  property;  each  party  may  claim  that 
he  has  the  right  to  it  under  the  law.  Similar  disputes  might 
arise  over  a  debt,  or  over  an  agreement  or  contract  between 
two  parties.  These  disputes  may  be  very  complicated,  in- 
volving many  points  to  be  considered. 

Suppose  a  man  is  accused  of  some  offense  against  the  crimi- 
nal laws  of  the  state,  such,  for  instance,  as  robbery  or  murder. 
Whatever  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted  upon  him  will  depend 
on  two  things.  First,  it  will  depend  on  the  facts  of  the  case, 
involving  the  question  of  whether  he  really  committed  the 
act,  and  if  so,  whether  it  was  partially  or  wholly  justifiable. 
Second,  it  will  depend  on  what  particular  law  will  apply  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  crime  was  committed. 

Now  it  must  be  very  clear  that  every  time  an  attempt  is 
made  to  apply  the  law  to  a  particular  case,  many  questions 
will  arise  in  regard  to  the  facts  of  the  case  and  the  meaning  of 
the  law  which  is  applied  to  these  facts.  There  must,  there- 
fore, be  a  judicial  department  of  the  government,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  explain  the  laws  and  apply  them  in  particular  instances. 
This  part  of  the  government's  work  is  accomplished  by  the 
courts. 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE  COURTS.  It  is  the  courts 
that   constitute   our   strongest   protection   against   injustice. 

104 


THE  STATE  COURTS  105 

If  any  individual  of  the  community  feels  that  an  injury  has 
been  done  him  by  another  member  of  the  community  con- 
trary to  the  law,  he  applies  to  the  courts  to  determine  the 
matter.  If  he  feels  that  the  officers  of  the  government  are 
overstepping  their  authority  and  are  trampling  upon  his 
rights  and  liberties,  he  goes  to  the  courts  with  his  grievance. 
If  a  bad  member  of  the  community  commits  a  crime,  it  is 
the  courts  that  examine  into  the  facts  and  circumstances  of 
the  case  and  determine  what  his  punishment  shall  be  in 
accordance  with  the  law.  Few  people  pass  through  life  with- 
out on  some  occasion  finding  it  necessary  to  seek  the  assist- 
ance or  the  protection  of  the  courts. 

It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  justice  among  the  English- 
speaking  people  that  there  must  be  in  every  community  at 
least  one  court  for  the  settlement  of  perplexing  questions  of 
fact  and  law.  In  other  words,  every  man  must  have  the  pro- 
tection of  the  courts  within  his  reach.  The  system  of  courts 
in  Virginia  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is  somewhat  com- 
plicated. There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  courts, 
each  with  certain  limits  to  the  powers  that  it  may  exercise. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  examine  in  detail  the  powers,  or  jurisdic- 
tion, as  it  is  usually  called,  of  these  various  courts.  It  will 
be  sufficient  for  us  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the  system  of  courts 
in  the  state.     There  are  in  the  main  four  classes  of  courts. 

THE  JUSTICES'  COURTS  AND  POLICE  COURTS. 
In  every  county  in  Virginia  there  are  a  number  of  justices  of 
the  peace  whose  duty  it  is  to  hold  courts  for  the  trial  of  petty 
offenses  against  the  laws  of  the  state  and  the  county.  In  the 
cities,  likewise,  there  is  a  similar  court  usually  called  the  police 
court.  These  courts  constitute  the  most  numerous  branch  of 
courts  in  the  state.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
they  have  authority  to  try  only  such  petty  offenses  as  are  pun- 
ishable by  small  fines  or  short  terms  of  imprisonment  in  jail. 
They  can  also  determine  disputes  in  regard  to  property  and 
debts  where  only  small  amounts  are  involved.     In  many  in- 


106    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

stances  even  after  a  case  has  been  decided  in  these  lowest 
courts  of  the  state,  the  law  provides  that  it  may  be  carried  to 
the  next  higher  court,  and  there  be  reviewed. 

THE  CIRCUIT  COURTS.  Next  above  the  justices'  courts 
are  the  circuit  courts.  In  all  there  are  thirty-one  such  courts 
in  Virginia.  For  this  purpose  the  whole  state  is  divided  into 
thirty-one  circuits.  Each  circuit  consists  of  a  number  of 
counties  or  a  county  and  a  city.  The  court  of  any  circuit 
is  held,  as  the  occasion  may  demand,  in  this  or  that  county  or 
city  of  the  circuit;  and  from  the  fact  that  it  moves  from  place 
to  place,  it  takes  its  name,  the  "circuit"  court.  It  is  this 
court  which  has  the  authority  to  hear  by  far  the  larger  number 
of  cases  that  arise.  In  cases  arising  out  of  disputes  over  such 
things  as  property  and  debts,  the  law  provides  that  they  must 
involve  a  certain  amount  of  money  if  they  are  to  be  brought 
before  the  circuit  court.  If  a  person  is  arrested  for  an  offense 
against  the  law,  he  can  be  tried  in  the  circuit  court  only  when 
the  offense  is  so  serious  that  it  may  be  punished  by  imprison- 
ment in  the  state  penitentiary.  Thus  small  cases  and  trials 
for  petty  offenses  are  left  to  the  justices'  and  police  courts. 

THE  CITY  OR  CORPORATION  COURTS.  In  addition 
to  the  circuit  court,  every  city  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants 
may  have  an  additiijnal  court  known  as  a  corporation  court. 
Cities  which  have  as  many  as  thirty  thousand  inhabitants 
have  a  number  of  different  courts,  each  with  the  power,  or 
jurisdiction,  to  try  cases  of  certain  kinds  prescribed  by  the 
law.  It  is  natural  that  many  more  cases  should  arise  in  large 
cities  than  in  farming  communities.  A  special  and  more 
elaborate  system  of  city  courts  is  therefore  provided. 

THE  SUPREME  COURT  OF  APPEALS.  At  the  top  of 
the  system  of  courts  provided  for  Virginia  stands  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Appeals.  This  court  has  the  power  to  hear  cases 
which  may  have  been  tried  in  the  circuit  courts  and  the  various 
city  courts,  and  which  may  be  carried,  in  accordance  with  the 
law,  to  the  highest  court  of  the  state  for  a  last  hearing.     The 


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108    G0VERNMP:XT  AXD  politics  in  VIRGINIA 

Supreme  Court  holds  sessions  at  different  times  of  the  year 
in  Richmond,  Staunton,  and  Wythevillc. 

THE  JUDGES.  The  justices'  courts  are  presided  over  by 
justices  of  the  peace,  elected  by  the  people  of  the  district  in 
which  they  serve.  All  the  other  courts  in  the  state,  however, 
are  presided  over  by  judges.  For  each  circuit  court  and  for 
each  city  court  one  judge  is  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly 
for  a  term  of  eight  years.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals 
consists  of  five  judges  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly  for  a 
term  of  twelve  years  each.  It  is  provided  that  the  judges  in 
all  of  these  courts  shall  be  men  trained  in  the  law,  either  by 
having  previously  held  a  judicial  position,  or  by  having  prac- 
tised law  for  a  period  of  at  least  five  years.  It  is  provided 
also  that  their  salaries  shall  not  be  increased  or  diminished 
during  their  terms  of  office.  This  is  in  order  to  prevent  the 
General  Assembly  from  gaining  any  control  over  the  honesty 
and  impartiality  of  the  judges  of  the  state,  by  refusing  to  con- 
tinue their  salaries. 

There  is  a  very  good  reason  why  our  judges  are  chosen  for 
terms  of  eight  and  twelve  years,  instead  of  for  a  term  of  four 
years  as  in  the  case  of  the  Governor.  One  of  the  principles 
that  lie  at  the  bottom  of  our  judicial  system  is  that  every 
man,  no  matter  how  poor  and  obscure,  shall  be  equal  to  any 
other  man  when  he  appears  before  the  courts.  If  our  judges 
were  subjected  to  the  control  of  political  parties  by  reason  of 
frequent  elections,  their  decisions  might  sometimes  be  in- 
fluenced by  their  desire  for  reappointment.  The  object, 
therefore,  of  choosing  the  judges  for  long  terms  is  that  they 
may  be  separated  from  any  control  of  politics,  and  that  they 
may  feel  free  to  interpret  the  law  with  absolute  impartiality. 

THE  TRIAL  OF  CA  SES  BEFORE  THE  CO  URTS.  How 
does  a  person  proceed  when  he  feels  that  it  is  necessary  for 
him  to  call  on  the  courts  for  assistance  in  maintaining  his 
rights  against  some  other  person?  If  he  ascertains  that  the 
law  is  probably  in  favor  of  his  claim,  he  usually  places  the 


THE  STATE  COURTS  109 

matter  in  the  hands  of  a  lawyer,  who  brings  it  before  the  proper 
court  at  the  proper  time,  and  in  accordance  with  the  regula- 
tions prescribed  for  such  proceedings.  The  other  party  con- 
cerned generally  employs  a  lawyer  to  represent  him;  and  the 
matter  is  fought  out  between  these  lawyers  in  the  presence 
of  the  court.  The  facts  are  all  heard,  the  law  is  interpreted 
and  applied,  and  a  decision  is  rendered.  Such  a  case  as  this 
is  called  a  civil  suit.     In  such  a  suit  no  person  is  on  trial. 

In  case  an  individual  is  arrested  and  accused  of  some  crime, 
he  usually  employs,  or  else  the  government  provides  for  him,  a 
lawyer  to  represent  his  cause  before  the  court.  Opposed  to 
this  lawyer  is  an  officer  known  as  the  commonwealth's  attor- 
ney, who  is  himself  a  lawyer  representing  the  community. 
It  is  the  duty  of  this  officer  to  bring  out  before  the  court  all 
the  facts  that  will  help  to  show  the  guilt  of  the  prisoner.  You 
see,  therefore,  that  we  again  have  two  lawyers  struggling  with 
each  other  in  the  presence  of  the  court  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  question  to  be  decided.  Such  a  case  as  this,  in  which  a 
person  is  being  tried  for  a  crime  of  which  he  is  accused,  is 
called  a  criminal  case.  In  any  criminal  case  the  government 
itself,  represented  by  the  commonwealth's  attorney,  is  one  of 
the  parties  concerned.  A  man  who  has  committed  a  crime 
has  really  committed  an  injury  against  the  whole  people  of 
the  community,  and  the  government  must  punish  him  if  his 
guilt  can  be  proved. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Suppose  a  dispute  arises  between  two  persons  over  a  debt,  how  is 
it  usually  settled?  Suppose  a  man  is  arrested  for  stealing,  who  deter- 
mines his  punishment?  Why  are  the  courts  necessary?  How  do  they 
protect  us  from  injustice? 

2.  Have  you  ever  been  in  a  court  room?  If  so,  describe  it.  Do  you 
know  the  name  of  any  justice  of  the  peace  in  your  neighborhood  (or  of  a 
police  justice)?  Where  is  his  court  held?  If  a  man  is  arrested  for  fight- 
ing in  your  community,  before  what  court  would  he  be  taken? 


110    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

3.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  try  to  find  out  how  many  courts  there  are  in 
your  city  and  what  they  are  called.  If  you  live  in  a  county,  find  out  where 
the  circuit  court  sits.     Why  is  it  called  a  circuit  court? 

4.  Describe  the  system  of  courts  in  Virginia.  Why  are  the  judges 
appointed  for  long  terms?  Why  may  not  the  legislature  increase  or  di- 
minish their  salaries? 

5.  What  is  the  highest  court  in  Virginia?  How  many  judges  sit  in  it? 
How  are  they  appointed  and  for  what  term? 

6.  Explain  how  in  every  case,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  there  are 
lawyers  on  each  side  of  the  question.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  common- 
wealth's attorney?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  who  is  the  commonwealth's 
attorney  In  your  community. 


V 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  COUNTIES 

WHY  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT  WAS  ESTABLISHED 
IN  VIRGINIA.  The  entire  state  of  Virginia  is  divided  into 
one  hundred  districts  known  as  counties.  In  each  of  these 
counties  a  local  government  Is  established.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  county  government  to  attend  to  certain  matters  that 
are  of  interest  primarily  to  the  locality.  Its  officers  also 
enforce  many  of  the  laws  that  are  enacted  by  the  state  legis- 
lature in  Richmond. 

County  government  dates  back  to  a  very  early  period  in  the 
history  of  England.     When  the  settlers  came  over  to  America 
and  established  the  colony  of  Virginia,  they  simply  trans- 
planted to  Virginia  the  county  form  of  government  to  which 
they  had  been  accustomed  in  England.     As  we  have  already 
had  occasion  to  note  the  people  of  Virginia,  as  In  the  rest  of 
the  South,  settled  upon  large  farms  or  plantations.     They 
thus  lived  considerable  distances  from  one  another.     Now  this 
fact  had  an  Important  influence  upon  the  kind  of  government 
that  developed  in  Virginia.     It  would  have  been  impossible, 
for  example,  for  the  people  of  Virginia  to  establish  the  kind 
of  local  government  that  developed  In  New  England.     The 
people  who  settled  In  New  England  came  over  to  this  country 
largely  that  they  might  enjoy  religious  freedom.     They  came, 
therefore,  in  congregations  or  groups.     They  did  not  separate 
and  settle  on  large  estates.     They  built  their  homes  close 
around  the  church  and  the  schoolhouse.     Living  as  they  did 
quite  close  together,  It  was  natural  for  them  to  adopt  a  direct, 
or,  as  we  say,  popular  or  democratic  form  of  government. 
All  the  inhabitants  of  each  community  met  together  and  de- 
cided what  their  local  laws  should  be  and  who  should  be  their 

111 


112    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

officers.  This  form  of  local  government  vStill  prevails  in  New 
England  and  in  a  somewhat  different  form  it  has  been  adopted 
in  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  known  as  township 
government  and  the  assembly  of  the  voters  is  called  the  town 
meeting. 

Instead  of  township  government  the  people  of  Virginia 
adopted  the  county  form  of  government.  All  the  people  of  a 
county  do  not  come  together  for  the  purpose  of  making  laws 
and  choosing  officers.  They  merely  go  to  the  several  polls 
and  elect  representatives  to  make  the  county  laws  for  them 
and  in  the  same  way  they  choose  the  officers  who  are  to  en- 
force these  laws. 

THEPOWERSOFTHE  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT.  The 
county,  which  is  only  a  subordinate  district  of  the  state,  is 
permitted  to  exercise  only  those  powers  that  are  granted  by 
the  state  constitution  and  the  state  legislature.  The  county 
does  not,  in  fact,  enact  many  local  laws.  For  the  most  part 
its  officers  are  engaged  simply  in  enforcing  the  laws  passed 
by  the  state  legislature.  For  example,  it  is  the  officers  of  the 
county  who  preserve  the  peace  by  arresting  those  who  violate 
the  laws  of  the  state.  The  county  also  provides  the  court- 
house in  which  such  persons  are  tried  and  the  jail  in  which 
they  are  imprisoned.  In  this  courthouse,  too,  are  heard  those 
controversies  which  arise  between  individuals  in  the  county. 
The  state  laws  require  also  that  the  county  shall  make  pro- 
vision for  the  care  of  the  poor.  It  is  the  county,  moreover, 
which,  under  the  laws  of  the  state,  makes  provision  for  the 
building  and  maintenance  of  schoolhouses  and  for  the  con- 
struction of  roads  and  bridges. 

THE  COUNTY  BOARD  OF  SUPERVISORS.  Every 
county  is  divided  into  three  or  more  districts  that  are  known  as 
magisterial  districts.  Once  in  every  four  years,  in  November, 
the  voters  of  each  district  elect  a  supervisor  of  the  district; 
and  the  supervisors  of  the  several  districts  form  what  is  known 
as  the  county  board  of  supervisors.     The  law  confers  upon  this 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  COUNTIES 


113 


board  the  power  to  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  government  of  the  county.  It  is  this  board 
also  which  decides  upon  the  building  and  repairing  of  roads 
and  bridges  and  which  provides  for  the  erection  of  school- 
houses,  the  courthouse,  the  jail,  and  the  poorhouse.  It  is 
this  board  which  levies  the  taxes  that  are  necessary  for  these 
various  purposes  and  which  borrows  money  in  the  name  of 


THE  COURTHOUSE  OF  CHARLOTTE  COUNTY,  VIRGINIA 

This  is  one  of  our  oldest  courthouses.     Both  Patrick  Henry  and  John  Randolph 

have  been  heard  within  its  walls 

the  county  when  that  is  necessary.  Indeed  the  board  of 
supervisors  has  general  control  and  direction  of  the  affairs  of 
the  county.  The  law  requires  that  it  must  meet  at  least  twice 
in  every  year  and  the  board  may  come  together  oftener  if 
need  be. 

THE  OTHER  COUNTY  OFFICERS.     In  addition  to  the 
board  of  supervisors  there  are  a  number  of  other  county  officers 


114    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

who  are  elected  by  the  voters  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  one, 
the  county  clerk,  who  is  elected  for  an  eight-year  term. 

The  sheriff  is  the  officer  who  has  charge  of  the  county  jail 
and  whose  duty  it  is  to  assist  in  preserving  the  peace  by  arrest- 
ing persons  suspected  of  violating  the  laws.  He  attends  the 
circuit  court  when  it  meets  in  his  county,  and  he  carries  out 
the  orders  of  the  court.  The  sheriff  is  the  most  important 
executive  officer  of  the  county,  for  many  other  duties  in  addi- 
tion to  those  mentioned  here  are  laid  upon  him  by  law. 

The  commonwealth's  attorney  is  the  law  officer  of  the 
county.  It  is  his  duty  to  prosecute  criminals  who  are  tried 
before  the  circuit  court.  He  also  assists  the  board  of  super- 
visors and  the  other  county  officers  in  the  performance  of 
their  duties  by  giving  them  his  opinion  on  questions  of  law. 

The  county  clerk  is  the  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  the 
records  of  the  county.  It  is  by  means  of  these  records  that 
the  owners  of  land  in  the  county  are  assisted  in  establish- 
ing their  claims  to  their  property.  Whenever  land  is  trans- 
ferred from  one  person  to  another  a  record  of  this  transfer 
must  be  made  in  the  county  clerk's  office.  It  is  the  county 
clerk  also  who  issues  marriage  licenses  and  who  keeps  a  record 
of  marriages,  births,  and  deaths  in  the  county. 

The  justices  of  the  peace  are  the  officers  who  hold  the  lowest 
courts  in  the  state.  Before  these  officers  all  petty  offences 
and  disputes  are  tried.  It  is  their  duty  also  to  assist  in  the 
preservation  of  the  peace.  Three  justices  are  elected  in  each 
magisterial  district.  There  is  also  elected  in  each  district 
at  least  one  constable  whose  duty  it  is  to  arrest  persons  ac- 
cused of  violating  the  laws  and  otherwise  to  assist  in  preserv- 
ing order  within  the  community. 

The  superintendent  of  the  poor  is  the  officer  who  has  charge 
of  the  poorhouse  or  poor  farm  that  is  maintained  in  every 
county. 

The  principal  financial  ofiicers  of  the  county  are  the  land 
assessors,  the  commissioners  of  revenue,  and  the  county  treas- 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  COUNTIES 


115 


urer.  For  each  magisterial  district  one  land  assessor  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  circuit  judge.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  land 
assessor  to  make  Hsts  of  all  the  land  and  buildings  in  his  dis- 
trict and  to  determine  the  value  at  which  such  property  shall 
be  held  for  taxation.  The  people  of  each  district  also  elect  a 
commissioner  of  revenue,  whose  duty  it  is  to  list  and  value 
new  buildings  and  all  other  kinds  of  property  that  are  owned 


PEELING  WILLOWS  TO  MAKE  BASKETS 
These  willows  are  grown  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia 

by  the  people  of  the  district.  The  taxes  that  are  levied  are 
collected  and  cared  for  by  the  county  treasurer.  He  pays 
out  such  sums  as  he  may  be  authorized  to  pay;  and  he  for- 
wards to  the  State  Auditor  at  Richmond  such  part  of  the 
taxes  as  belongs  to  the  state  government.  ♦ 

There  are  also  in  every  county  a  surveyor,  one  or  more  coro- 
ners, and  certain  minor  officers  whose  duties  are  prescribed 


116    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

by  law.  These  assist  in  various  ways  in  carrying  out  the 
scheme  of  county  government. 

THE  COUNTY  SCHOOL  OFFICERS.  It  has  already 
been  mentioned  that  in  every  community  there  is  a  local  officer 
called  the  division  superintendent  of  schools,  this  officer 
being  appointed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Senate.  The  division  superintendent  usually 
has  charge  of  a  single  county  or  city,  but  in.  a  few  instances 
two  counties  or  a  county  and  a  city  are  placed  under  one 
superintendent.  The  division  superintendent  has  general 
power  to  supervise  and  regulate  the  schools  in  his  division  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  state  and  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Every  county  is  divided  into  a  number  of  school  districts. 
The  division  superintendent,  the  commonwealth's  attorney, 
and  one  resident  of  the  county  (who  is  appointed  for  this  pur- 
pose by  the  judge  of  the  circuit  court)  choose  for  each  school 
district  a  number  of  persons  who  are  known  as  school  trustees. 
This  district  board  of  trustees  has  the  power  to  appoint 
teachers  for  the  schools  within  the  district.  In  other  ways 
also  these  trustees  look  after  the  interests  of  the  schools. 
The  entire  number  of  district  trustees  in  any  one  county  form 
the  county  school  board,  whose  duty  it  is  to  assist  and  direct 
the  division  superintendent. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  COUNTY  HISTORY.  There 
is  scarcely  a  county  in  Virginia  that  has  not  produced  its 
great  men.  Some  of  these  men  are  only  of  local  reputation; 
but  in  many  cases  they  have  played  important  roles  in  the 
history  of  Virginia  and  the  nation.  Moreover,  many  counties 
have  been  the  scenes  of  famous  battles  and  other  important 
incidents  of  our  history.  It  ought  to  be  our  pride  to  know 
of  these  things.  We  should  be  eager  to  learn  something  of 
rfie  history  of  our  county  and  the  share  it  has  had  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  state.  We  should  cherish  the  names  of  our  great 
men  and  perpetuate  their  memory.     Might  it  not  be  a  good 


THE  GOVERNMENT  ()1«'  COUNTIES  117 

idea  to  name  the  public  schools  in  every  community  after  the 
great  men  of  the  locality? 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  In  what  county  do  you  live?  Describe  its  situation  in  the  state. 
Try  to  find  out  something  about  its  history;  when  was  it  settled,  when  did 
it  become  a  county,  how  did  it  receive  its  name? 

2.  Explain  how  geographical  conditions  in  Virginia  gave  rise  to  the 
county  form  of  local  government.  What  is  meant  by  township  govern- 
ment? Where  did  it  flourish,  and  why?  Why  did  it  not  develop  in  Vir- 
ginia? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  powers  which  your  county  government  ex- 
ercises? How  is  the  county  board  of  supervisors  formed?  W^hat  are  its 
powers?  What  magisterial  district  do  you  live  in?  Find  out  who  your 
district  supervisor  is.  When  was  he  elected?  How  long  has  he  yet  to 
serve?     How  often  must  the  board  of  supervisors  meet? 

4.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  who  is  the  present  treasurer  of  your  county. 
The  sheriff.  The  commonwealth's  attorney.  The  county  clerk.  How 
many  justices  of  the  peace  are  there  in  your  district?  Constables?  Com- 
missioners of  revenue?  Land  assessors?  How  are  these  various  officers 
chosen?     What  is  their  term  of  office?     Which  one  serves  for  eight  years? 

5.  Who  is  your  superintendent  of  schools?  Who  appointed  him? 
Who  are  your  school  trustees?  How  were  they  chosen?  How  many  mem- 
bers are  there  of  your  county  school  board?  Mention  the  names  of  some 
of    them. 

6.  What  great  men  has  your  community  produced?     Which  of  them 
were  of  local,  which  of  state,  which  of  national  reputation?     What  do 
you  know  of  their  lives?     Are  their  names  commemorated  in  any  way  in 
your  community?     Can  you  think  of  some  simple  ways  by  which  they  ' 
might  be  commemorated? 

7.  What  important  incidents  of  history  have  taken  place  in  your  com- 
munity?    Are  these  incidents  commemorated?     How? 


ti- 


^    -^  CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES 

THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES  IN  VIRGINIA.  Although 
the  cities  of  Richmond,  Norfolk,  and  Williamsburg  were 
established  as  far  back  as  the  colonial  period  of  our  history, 
the  growth  of  cities  in  Virginia  both  in  number  and  popula- 
tion has  been  rapid  only  since  the  War  Between  the  States. 
This  delay  in  the  development  of  cities  in  Virginia,  as  in  the 
rest  of  the  South,  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  people  lived  on 
large  plantations,  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  there  was  a  large 
slave  population.  The  slaves  made  excellent  farm  laborers; 
but  they  were  not  trained  for  labor  of  a  higher  character,  such 
as  is  required  in  operating  the  complicated  machinery  that  is 
used  in  manufacturing.  Now,  as  everyone  knows,  the  people 
of  cities  support  themselves  by  manufacturing  and  trading. 
It  was  quite  impossible  for  large  cities  to  develop  in  Virginia 
so  long  as  there  were  slaves  among  us;  for  these  could  not  be 
profitably  employed  in  manufacturing  industries. 

Since  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  cities  have  developed 
far  more  rapidly  in  Virginia  than  formerly.  During  the  ten 
years  from  1900  to  1910  the  population  of  Richmond  (127,628) 
increased  fifty  per  cent;  that  of  Norfolk  (67,452)  increased 
forty-four  per  cent;  and  that  of  Roanoke  (34,874)  sixty-two 
per  cent.  In  1890  Newport  News  had  a  population  of  only 
4,449;  in  1910  it  had  20,205  inhabitants.  In  1890  Roanoke 
had  a  population  of  16,159  inhabitants;  in  1910  there  were 
34,874  persons  in  this  city.  In  spite  of  this  increase  in  the 
population  of  the  cities  in  Virginia,  it  is  important  to  bear  in 
mind,  as  has  already  been  noted,  that  the  vast  majority  of  the 
people  in  the  state  still  live  on  farms. 

118 


THE  C.OVICRNMENT  OK  (11  IKS 


119 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  CITY  GOVERNMENT.  Wc  have 
already  had  occasion  to  note  that  the  government  undertakes 
many  things  for  the  people  of  city  communities  that  are  un- 
necessary in  farming  communities.  It  is  scarcely  needful  to 
explain  why  this  should  be  the  case.  Where  so  many  people 
live  close  to  one  another,  they  are  compelled  to  use  the  same 


CONGESTED  TRAFFIC  IN  A  CITY   STREET 


Streets,  the  same  facilities  for  lighting  their  houses  and  getting 
water,  as  well  as  many  other  things  in  common.  There  are 
also  many  dangers  from  which  they  must  be  protected.  It  is 
the  government  which  must  attend  to  these  matters  for  the 
common  welfare  of  all.     Streets  must  be  laid  out,  lighted. 


120    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

paved,  and  kept  clean.  Parks  must  be  provided.  A  police 
force  must  be  maintained  for  the  protection  of  life  and  prop- 
erty and  for  the  enforcement  of  the  laws.  Water  must  be 
furnished  to  the  inhabitants;  fire  departments  maintained;  a 
sewer  system  installed;  and  schoolhouses,  city  halls,  court- 
houses, jails,  and  poorhouses  must  be  erected.  These  and 
many  other  things  the  city  must  undertake.  Now  all  these 
undertakings  call  for  a  more  or  less  elaborate  government — a 
government  that  differs  in  many  respects  from  that  which  is 
provided  for  counties. 

THE  MEANING  OF  A  CITY  CHARTER.  The  govern- 
ment of  every  city  in  Virginia  is  provided  for  by  what  is  known 
as  the  charter  of  the  city.  This  charter  is  simply  a  law  enacted 
by  the  state  legislature.  It  provides  in  detail  how  the  city 
government  shall  be  organized,  how  the  city  laws  shall  be 
made,  what  city  officers  there  shall  be,  and  what  powers  the 
city  may  exercise.  Under  these  charters  the  form  of  govern- 
ment in  one  city  is  in  many  respects  quite  different  from  that 
of  another  city.  It  is,  therefore,  somewhat  difficult  to  de- 
scribe briefly  the  government  of  the  cities  of  the  state. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  UNDER  OLD  SPE- 
CIAL CHARTERS.  Nearly  all  the  cities  of  Virginia  are 
operating  under  special  charters  which  were  enacted  many 
years  ago,  and  which  have  from  time  to  time  been  amended 
by  the  legislature.  These  charters  provide  for  a  law-making 
body,  which  is  known  as  the  city  council;  and,  like  the  state 
legislature,  this  council  is  divided  into  two  houses,  or  chambers. 
One  of  these  chambers  is  called  the  common  council,  and  the 
other  the  board  of  aldermen.  For  the  purpose  of  electing 
councilnien  and  alderm.en,  the  city  is  divided  into  wards.  The 
voters  of  each  ward  elect  a  number  of  councilmen  and  a  smaller 
number  of  aldermen.  In  one  or  two  of  the  smaller  cities  of 
the  state  the  city  council  consists  of  a  single  body. 

The  laws  which  the  city  council  is  empowered  to  make  are 
known  as  ordinances.     These  ordinances,  of  course,   relate 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES 


121 


only  to  the  local  affairs  of  the  city.  For  the  purpose  of  enact- 
ing ordinances  city  councils  are  organized  much  as  is  the  state 
legislature.  Proposals  are  referred  to  committees  and  must 
be  passed  by  both  chambers  of  the  council.  They  are  then 
sent  to  the  mayor  for  his  signature,  and  if  vetoed  by  the 
mayor,  they  can  be  passed  only  by  a  majority  vote  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  of  both  chambers.  It  is  the  city  council 
which  determines  what  local  taxes  are  to  be  raised  for  carrying 


A  BEAUTIFULLY  PARKED  CITY  STREET 

on  the  work  of  the  city  government,  and  which,  when  the 
taxes  have  been  collected,  appropriates  money  for  the  various 
activities  of  the  government. 

In  every  city  there  is  a  mayor  who  occupies  in  the  city  gov- 
ernment a  position  somewhat  like  that  of  the  governor  in  the 
state  government.  The  mayor  is  the  chief  executive  officer 
of  the  city.     It  is  his  duty  to  sec  that  the  other  officers  attonrl 


122    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

properly  to  the  duties  laid  upon  them.  He  often  has  the 
power  to  suspend  any  officer  who  neglects  his  duty.  The 
mayor,  however,  has  larger  powers  in  some  cities  than  he  has 
in  others,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  describe  his  office  exactly. 
The  mayor  is  elected  by  the  voters,  usually  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  In  most  cities,  also,  the  people  elect  at  the  same  time 
and  for  the  same  term  a  city  treasurer,  a  commonwealth's 
attorncN',  a  tax  collector,  and  a  city  sergeant.  In  addition  to 
these  elected  officers  there  are  in  every  city  a  number  of  ap- 
pointed officers  in  charge  of  the  various  departments  of  the 
government,  such  as  the  police,  fire,  and  health  departments. 
These  officers  are  usually  appointed  by  the  city  council, 
which  also  chooses  the  members  of  certain  important  boards 
and  commissions  that  direct  the  work  of  various  branches  of 
the  city  government. 

In  a  very  general  way  this  is  the  type  of  government  that  is 
found  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Virginia.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
important  to  remember  that  there  are  many  variations  from 
this  type.  For  example,  in  Norfolk  there  is  an  elected  board 
of  control,  and  in  Richmond  an  elected  administrative  board. 
These  boards,  whose  duties  need  not  be  described  in  detail, 
are  perhaps  the  most  important  features  of  the  government  of 
these  two  cities.  The  fact  is  that  in  order  to  understand  the 
government  of  any  particular  city,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
special  charter  of  that  city. 

THE  NEW  FORMS  OF  CITY  GOVERNMENT.  In  1912 
a  constitutional  amendment  was  adopted,  and  in  1914  a  law 
was  passed  by  the  legislature  which  confers  upon  the  cities  of 
Virginia  the  power  to  adopt  forms  of  government  wholly 
different  from  that  under  which  most  of  the  cities  of  the  state 
are  now  operating.  This  law  permits  any  city  with  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  (Rich- 
mond is  the  only  such  city  at  present)  to  adopt  its  own  charter. 
This  charter  must  be  submitted  to  the  voters  of  the  city,  and 
if  a  majorily  of  (hem  approve  il ,  ihe  legislature  may  then  enact 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES 


123 


it  into  law.     For  the  other  cities  of  the  state  the  lep;islature 
has  provided  a  choice  of  three  different  kinds  of  government. 
Upon  a  vote  of  the  majority  of  the  people  of  any  city,  they  may 
elect  to  be  governed  under  any  one  of  these  three  forms. 
The  first  of  these  types  of  government  is  known  as  the 


THE  CITY  HALL,  RICHMOND,  VIRGINIA 

"general  councilmanic  plan."  It  differs  from  the  government 
provided  by  most  of  the  old  special  charters  in  that  the  law- 
making body  of  the  city  consists  of  only  one  house,  which 
may  contain  from  three  to  eleven  members,  according  to  the 


124    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

size  of  the  city.  In  the  smaller  cities  these  members  are 
chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  entire  city,  instead  of  by  wards, 
and  even  the  larger  cities  may  elect  their  councilmen  in  this 
way  if  they  desire  to  do  so.  Under  this  type  of  government 
the  mayor  occupies  a  position  very  similar  to  that  which  has 
been  described  above. 

The  second  type  of  government  which  any  city  may  elect 
is  called  the  "modified  commission  plan."  Under  this  charter 
the  people  elect  either  three  or  five  commissioners,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  cit>-.  The  government  of  the  city  is  placed 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  this  small  group  of  commissioners. 
Sitting  as  a  body  they  pass  the  ordinances  of  the  city.  The 
various  activities  of  the  city  are  divided  into  as  many  depart- 
ments as  there  are  commissioners,  and  each  commissioner 
acts  as  the  head  of  one  of  these  departments,  being  especially 
responsible  for  its  management-  Of  course  these  commis- 
sioners employ  subordinate  officers  to  help  carry  on  the  work 
of  the  city  government,  these  officers  being  responsible  either 
to  the  commission  as  a  whole  or  to  the  individual  commis- 
sioners. The  commissioners  choose  one  of  their  number  to  be 
the  mayor  of  the  city;  but  under  this  form  of  government  the 
mayor  has  very  little  more  power  than  any  other  commis- 
sioner. He  cannot  veto  ordinances,  and  he  is  no  more  re- 
sponsible than  any  other  commissioner  for  the  conduct  of 
the  government.  This  commission  form  of  government  for 
cities  has  in  recent  years  become  very  popular  throughout  the 
United  States.  Hundreds  of  cities  have  abandoned  their  old 
forms  of  government  in  favor  of  government  by  a  small  com- 
mission. 

The  third  kind  of  government  which  any  city  may  adopt  is 
known  as  the  "city  manager  plan."  The  law-making  body 
under  this  plan  is  about  the  same  as  under  the  "general  coun- 
cilmanic  plan."  The  council  enacts  the  ordinances  of  the 
city ;  but  they  hire  a  city  manager,  and  he  is  vested  with  com- 
plete control  over  the  various  activities  and  services  of  the 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  125 

city  government.  He  is  appointed  for  no  definite  term  but 
holds  his  office  as  long  as  the  council.is  satisfied  with  his  work. 
He  appoints  and  removes  the  officers  and  employes  who  serve 
under  him.  Under  this  form  of  government  the  manager  is 
almost  wholly  responsible  for  the  character  of  the  government. 
This  city  manager  plan  is  another  type  of  government  which 
in  recent  years  has  been  adopted  by  a  number  of  cities  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  idea  of  such  a  plan  of  government  originated  in  the 
city  of  StaiMiton,  Virginia. 

CITY  SCHOOL  OFFICERS.  For  the  management  of 
public  schools  a  few  of  the  small  cities  of  the  state  are  joined 
to  the  counties  in  which  they  are  located.  In  most  cities, 
however,  there  is  a  city  (division)  superintendent  appointed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education.  This  superintendent  has 
general  charge  of  the  schools  of  the  city.  He  is  subject  to  the 
control,  however,  of  the  city  school  board,  the  members  of 
which  are  usually  appointed  by  the  city  council. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  TOWNS.  Towns  are  those 
communities  in  Virginia  which  have  less  than  five  thousand 
inhabitants,  although  there  are  a  few  communities  known  as 
cities  which  also  have  a  population  of  less  than  five  thousand. 
Town  governments  are  somewhat  simple  in  form.  There  is  a 
town  council,  a  town  mayor,  and  a  few  other  executive  officers. 
The  most  important  distinction  between  a  town  and  a  small 
city  is  that  a  town  is  subjected  to  some  control  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  county  in  which  it  is  located.  Although  every 
city  of  Virginia  is  situated  in  a  county,  the  officers  of  the 
county  do  not  exercise  any  power  whatever  over  the  people  of 
the  city. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Try  to  find  out  the  population  of  your  city,  or  of  the  nearest  city 
to  you.  Is  its  population  said  to  be  increasing?  Can  you  see  any  evi- 
dences of  the  increase,  such  as  the  building  of  new  residences  or  business 
houses?  What  natural  advantages  has  your  city?  What  attracts  people 
to  it? 


126    GOVERNMENT  AND  I'ULITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

2.  Mention  some  of  the  thin{!;s  that  city  governments  provide  that  are 
not  undertaken  by  county  governments.  Why  docs  this  difference  exist? 
Explain,  then,  why  the  city  government  differs  in  form  from  that  of  the 
county. 

3.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  city  charter.  Find  out  whether  the 
government  of  your  c'ty  (or  the  nearest  city  to  you)  is  established  by  an 
old  si)ccial  charter.  Find  out  how  the  city  council  is  organized.  Are 
there  one  or  two  bodies?     What  are  they  called? 

4.  How  many  wards  are  there  in  your  city  (or  the  nearest  city  to  you)? 
How  many  councilmcn  are  elected  in  each  ward?  How  many  aldermen? 
\\'li('n  are  they  next  elected?  How  long  do  they  serve?  What  is  a  city 
ordinance? 

.5.  Who  is  the  mayor  of  your  city?  When  was  he  elected?  How  long 
does  he  serve?     What  are  his  duties? 

6.  ^^'ho  appoints  in  your  city  firemen,  jiolicemen,  street  cleaners,  health 
officers,  officers  who  lay  out  and  jKXve  the  streets? 

7.  Does  your  city  own  the  waterworks?  The  gas  plant?  The  electric 
plant?     If  so,  who  appoints  the  officers  who  manage  these  enterprises? 

8.  Describe  the  "modified  commission  form"  of  city  government.  The 
"city  manager  form."     The  "general  councilmanic  plan." 

9.  Ex[)lain  how  any  city  (except  Richmond)  may  adopt  any  one  of 
these  three  forms  of  government.  Has  your  city  (or  the  nearest  city  to 
you)  adopted  or  attempted  to  adopt  any  one  of  them? 

10.  How  may  Richmond  change  its  form  of  government? 

11.  Tell  what  officers  control  the  schools  in  your  city. 

12.  If  you  live  in  a  town,  tell  some  of  the  things  that  your  town  gov- 
ernment undertakes.  What  officers  does  it  have?  How  many  members 
are  there  in  the  town  council?  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  towns 
and  small  cities? 

13.  Mention  the  names  of  all  the  imi)ortant  officers  of  your  city  or 
town. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
STATE  AND  LOCAL  TAXATION 

THE  MEANING  OF  TAXATION.  We  have  seen  that 
the  government  undertakes  to  perform  many  services  in  the 
interest  of  the  people — services  which  contribute  very  greatly 
to  our  individual  happiness  and  prosperity.  Naturally  it 
requires  a  great  deal  of  money  to  support  these  services  which 
the  government  undertakes.  Salaries  must  be  paid  to  officers, 
many  buildings  must  be  erected  and  maintained,  roads  and 
streets  must  be  improved.  The  money  for  these  and  for  many 
other  services  which  the  government  performs  must  be  se- 
cured from  the  people  of  the  community.  The  government 
secures  this  money  by  a  system  which  we  call  taxation. 

A  tax  is  a  sum  of  money  taken  from  the  individual  to  be 
used  by  the  government  for  the  interest  of  the  whole  com- 
munity. Or,  as  it  is  sometimes  briefly  put,  "a  tax  is  private 
property  taken  for  a  public  purpose" — this  property  being 
almost  invariably  in  the  form  of  money. 

Many  people  feel  that  it  is  a  great  hardship  to  pay  taxes 
to  the  government;  they  look  upon  this  almost  as  oppression. 
Some  of  them  do  not  think  that  they  are  doing  anything  wrong 
if  they  avoid  paying  their  taxes  whenever  that  is  possible. 
They  do  not  seem  to  realize  that  the  government  gives  them 
something  in  return  for  the  money  that  they  pay  in  taxes. 
It  gives  them,  as  we  have  seen,  innumerable  protections  for 
their  life,  their  liberty,  their  health,  their  property;  and 
innumerable  community  benefits,  such  as  good  roads  and 
streets  and  schoolhouses  for  the  education  of  their  children. 
People  ought  to  be  just  as  willing  to  pay  for  these  things  as 
they  are  ready  to  pay  for  things  which  they  buy  in  the  shops. 
Most  of  us  get  far  more  from  the  government  in  the  way  of  pro- 

127 


128    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IX  X'lRGINIA 

lection  and  benefits  than  we  ever  actualK  pay  for  in  taxes. 
The  fact  is  that  we  cannot  do  without  the  services  which  the 
government  supplies,  and  the  government  is  absolutely  de- 
pendent on  taxes  for  its  support. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  TA XA  TION.  We  have  seen  that 
the  government  sometimes  takes  an  individual's  property 
under  the  power  of  eminent  domain,  when  such  property  is 
needed  for  opening  a  street  or  road  or  for  any  other  public 
purpose.  Property  taken  in  this  manner  is  not  regarded  as  a 
tax,  because  the  individual  is  paid  directly  in  money  for  the 
property  that  is  taken.  When  the  government  takes  the  indi- 
vidual's property  in  the  form  of  taxes  the  individual  is  of 
course  not  paid  anything  directly.  He  gets  his  compensation 
only  indirectly  in  the  form  of  services  which  the  government 
provides. 

Ever  since  the  Revolutionary  War  it  has  been  settled  in 
the  United  States  that  the  people  alone  shall  have  power  to 
tax  themselves.  This  does  not  mean  that  each  person  may 
say  how  much  he  will  or  will  not  contribute  to  the  support  of 
the  government.  It  simply  means  that  taxes  can  be  levied 
upon  us  only  by  those  whom  we  ourselves  elect  to  represent 
us  for  this  purpose — by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  state, 
or  the  board  of  supervisors  of  the  county,  or  the  council  of  a 
city.     This  is  the  first  important  principle  of  taxation. 

The  second  principle  of  taxation  is  that  as  nearly  as  possible 
people  shall  pay  taxes  according  to  what  they  can  afford  to 
pay.  If  we  look  at  the  benefits  which  each  of  us  gets  from  the 
government  this  principle  may  not  seem  wholly  fair.  The 
rich  man,  who  pays  large  taxes,  receives  no  more  benefit  from 
the  roads  and  streets  and  schools  than  does  the  poor  man  who 
pays  little  or  no  taxes.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  absurd 
for  the  government  to  tax  everybody  the  same  amount,  with- 
out any  regard  to  differences  of  wealth  and  income  among  the 
people.  This  would  simply  mean  that  many  persons  would 
be  unable  to  pay  the  taxes  imposed  upon  them.     It  is  manifest 


STATE  AND  LOCAL  TAXATION  129 

that  the  government  can  get  money  for  its  support  only  from 
people  who  have  money.  We  have,  therefore,  hit  upon  the 
general  principle  that  people  must  contribute  to  the  support 
of  the  government  in  proportion  to  their  ability  to  do  so.  The 
poll  tax  of  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  year,  which  is  assessed  upon 
all  men  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  is  an  exception  to  this 
general  principle.  So  also  are  those  special  assessments  which 
the  government  levies  (when,  for  example,  a  road  or  street  is 
improved)  in  proportion  to  the  amount  which  the  adjoining 
property  is  increased  in  value  by  these  improvements. 

The  third  principle  in  our  system  of  taxation  is  that  taxes 
must  be  equally  and  impartially  laid.  All  the  people  of  a 
certain  class  and  all  the  property  of  a  certain  class  must  be 
taxed  alike.  The  government  cannot,  for  example,  levy  a  tax 
of  a  certain  amount  on  one  man's  farm  or  income  and  refuse 
to  place  the  same  tax  upon  another  farm  or  another  income  of 
equal  value.  While  this  principle  is  clearly  just  and  reason- 
able, it  should  be  noted  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  apply. 
As  we  have  seen,  property  is  assessed  for  taxation  by  many 
different  officers  throughout  the  state;  and  it  often  happens 
that  property  in  one  community  is  assessed  more  nearly  at 
its  true  value  than  property  in  some  other  community.  This 
is  sometimes  true  even  with  reference  to  different  pieces  of 
property  in  the  same  county.  The  government  should,  and 
probably  will,  make  every  effort  to  overcome  these  inequalities. 

TAXES  ON  REAL  AND  PERSONAL  PROPERTY. 
Property  in  lands  and  buildings  is  known  as  real  property. 
It  is  this  variety  of  property  that  bears  the  heaviest  burden  of 
taxation,  this  being  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible 
for  the  owners  of  such  property  to  hide  it.  Property  in  the 
form  of  farming  implements,  cattle,  furniture,  jewelry,  books, 
and  such  things,  as  well  as  property  in  the  form  of  money,  is 
known  as  personal  property.  The  government  also  endeavors 
to  collect  taxes  on  this  kind  of  property.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  taxes  on  personal  property  have  ever>^where  proved 


130    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  be  very  largely  a  failure.  This  is  partly  clue  to  the  fact 
that  the  owners  of  such  property  may  deceive  the  officers  of 
the  government  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  all  that  they 
possess.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  officers  of  the 
government  very  seldom  make  an  honest  effort  to  secure  all 
the  information  possible  about  the  personal  property  of  the 
people. 

In  every  community  in  Virginia  some  property  is  free  from 
taxation.  It  would  be  absurd,  for  example,  for  the  govern- 
ment to  tax  public  buildings,  roads,  and  streets.  This 
would  simply  mean  that  the  government  was  pa\ing  taxes  to 
itself.  Certain  other  classes  of  property,  such  as  public 
Hi)raries,  colleges  and  other  educational  institutions,  churches 
and  ministers'  residences,  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion buildings,  and  charitable  institutions  are  also  free  from 
taxation.  Such  property  as  this  is  not  taxed  because,  al- 
though it  is  owned  by  private  persons  or  associations,  it  is 
nevertheless  regarded  as  being  used  for  the  general  benefit  of 
the  whole  community. 

INCOME  TAXES.  Many  persons  receive  large  salaries 
and  have  other  sources  from  which  they  get  incomes,  although 
they  do  not  possess  any  real  property,  and  little,  if  any,  per- 
sonal property  on  which  the  government  actually  collects 
taxes.  It  is  not  just  that  such  persons  should  be  entirely  free 
from  taxation.  The  government,  therefore,  places  a  tax  on 
all  incomes  over  and  above  a  thousand  dollars  a  year.  As  in 
the  case  of  personal  property,  these  taxes  are  very  difficult 
to  collect.  The  officers  of  the  government  have  to  rely  al- 
most wholly  upon  the  individual's  willingness  to  declare 
exactly  what  his  income  is.  That  this  form  of  taxation  has 
not  been  a  great  success  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
twenty-five  or  thirty  counties  of  the  state  no  income  taxes  are 
paid  at  all. 

FRANCHISE  TAXES.  Certain  persons  and  corporations 
are  taxed  for  special   privileges  which   the  government  has 


STATE  AND  LOCAL  TAXATION  131 

granted  to  them.  These  taxes  are  known  generally  as  fran- 
chise taxes.  Railroad,  telegraph,  and  telephone  companies, 
for  example,  are  compelled  to  pay  such  taxes  in  return  for 
the  special  powers  which  the  government  gives  them.  So 
also  street  railway,  gas,  and  electric  light  companies  are  re- 
quired to  pay  franchise  taxes  for  the  peculiar  use  which  they 
make  of  the  public  streets. 

POLL  TAXES.  As  we  have  seen,  every  male  resident  of 
Virginia  who  is  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  is  required  to 
pay  a  tax  of  $1.50  a  year.  This  is  called  a  poll,  or  capitation, 
tax. 

STATE  AND  LOCAL  TAXES.  We  have  seen  that  there 
is  in  Virginia  not  only  a  state  government,  which  exercises 
powers  in  all  parts  of  the  state,  but  also  a  local  government 
established  over  every  county,  city,  and  town.  Both  the 
state  and  these  local  governments  have  to  have  means  of 
support.  A  part  of  the  money  that  is  collected  in  taxes  goes 
to  the  support  of  the  state  government  and  a  part  of  it  is 
used  for  the  support  of  the  local  governments.  The  state 
government  in  turn  distributes  to  the  various  communities 
of  the  state  money  for  various  purposes,  such  as  the  main- 
tenance of  schools  and  the  building  of  roads.  Under  this 
system  it  is  a  fact  that  about  thirty-five  of  the  one  hundred 
counties  in  the  state  receive  more  money  from  the  state 
treasury  than  they  actually  collect  in  the  form  of  taxes.  In 
effect,  therefore,  the  people  in  some  of  the  counties  and  cities 
are  taxed  to  assist  in  supplying  services  to  the  people  in  cer- 
tain other  counties. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Has  any  public  building  been  erected  in  your  community  recently? 
Try  to  find  out  how  much  it  cost.  Did  the  county,  city,  or  state  pay  for 
the  building?  Why?  Try  to  find  out  how  the  money  was  raised.  Ex- 
plain how  this  building  is  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  of  your  com- 
munity. 


\M    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

2.  How  is  money  raised  for  the  improvement  of  rouds  in  jour  county? 
Try  to  find  out  what  the  tax  assessment  for  roads  is.  "Who  determines 
this  assessment? 

3.  How  are  the  schools  sui)])orted  in  your  county?  Try  to  find  out 
what  the  school  assessment  is.  Have  any  new  schoolhouses  been  built 
recently?  How  much  did  they  cost?  Try  to  find  out  what  part  of  the 
school  expenses  are  paid  Ijy  your  coimty  authorties  and  what  part  by  the 
state. 

4.  In  what  ways  that  you  can  think  of  do  the  people  of  your  community 
receive  benefits  from  the  taxes  they  pay?  Explain  why  it  is  dishonest  to 
avoid  i)aying  taxes.  Explain  why  it  is  wrong  to  look  upon  taxes  as  op- 
])ression. 

5.  What  part  did  the  question  of  taxation  i)lay  in  the  causes  of  our 
Revolutionary  War?  What  princii)le  of  taxation  was  in  consequence 
established  in  America? 

6.  In  what  ways  that  you  can  think  of  does  the  owner  of  i)roperty  get 
special  benefits  by  pajing  the  large  taxes  that  are  assessed  upon  him? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  real  estate  and  personal  property? 
Do  you  own  any  real  estate?  Any  persinial  pro{3erty?  Explain  why  it  is 
easier  to  collect  taxes  on  the  one  than  it  is  on  the  other. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  ass(>ssing  projjcrty  for  taxation?  Try  to  find  out 
whether  property  in  your  coniniunity  is  said  to  be  assessed  high  or  low. 
What  does  this  mean? 

9.  What  ])roi)erty  that  you  can  think  of  in  jour  community  is  free 
from  taxation?  \\'hy  is  it  not  taxed?  Is  your  school  building  taxed? 
Why? 

10.  Mention  all  th(^  kinds  of  taxation  that  we  have  in  Virginia,  and  ex- 
I)lain  what  is  meant  by  each. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 
IN  THE  NATION 


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THIRD  PART 

POWERS   AND    DUTIES   OF   THE   NATIONAL   GOV- 
ERNMENT 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  AND  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT. 
In  spite  of  all  the  many  things  that  are  undertaken  by  our 
state  and  our  local  governments  in  Virginia,  as  in  other  states 
of  the  Union,  there  are  certain  very  important  powers  that 
are  exercised  and  services  that  are  rendered  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  nation,  which  has  its  seat  in  Washington.  After 
our  independence  was  won,  there  were  many  reasons  which 
prompted  the  people  of  the  new  states  to  unite  and  establish 
a  national  government.  The  people  of  the  several  states  had 
numerous  interests  in  common.  It  was  manifest,  therefore, 
that  many  of  their  affairs  could  best  be  managed  by  a  govern- 
ment that  represented  the  people  of  all  the  states. 

In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  see  how  the  Union  of  the  states 
came  to  be  established,  and  how  our  national  constitution 
was  framed  and  adopted.  This  constitution  determines  what 
powers  the  national  government  shall  exercise  and  in  what 
ways  it  shall  provide  for  the  protection  and  welfare  of  the 
people  of  the  entire  nation.  The  government  that  is  pro- 
vided for  in  the  national  constitution  undertakes  many  things 
that  are  of  interest  to  the  people  throughout  the  whole  United 
States — things  which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  attended  to 
by  the  separate  states. 

135 


136    GOVERNMENT  AM)  roJ.lllLS  IN  XlkC.lMA 


FOKEIGN  A  FFAIRS.  The  United  States  is  today  one  of 
the  leading  powers  of  the  world.  American  citizens  are  con- 
stantly travelHng  in  foreign  Countries  and  carrying  on  enor- 
mous commerce  with  the  citizens  of  other  nations.  Just  as  the 
interests  of  different  people  in  a  single  community  are  likely 
to  conflict  with  one  another,  so  the  interests  of  the  citizens  of 
different  nations  are  apt  to  give  rise  to  disputes  and  disagree- 
ments. If  some  means  were  not  provided  for  I  lie  peaceful 
regulation  of  affairs  between  nations,  the  people  of  one  coun- 


(Cnpi/rii/lil ,    I    rJi  iiriiiiil.   A'    I' ml,  rnadd) 

IMMIGRANTS  FROM  ARMENIA 
On  board  a  vessel  landing  at  New  York 

try  would  be  continually  getting  into  serious  difficulties  with 
the  people  of  some  other  country.  It  would  be  absurd,  of 
course,  to  allow  each  of  the  states  of  the  American  Union  to 
regulate  its  own  affairs  with  foreign  governments.  This  is 
a  duty,  therefore,  that  belongs  exclusively  to  the  national 
government.  In  a  number  of  different  ways  the  United 
States  government  seeks  to  preserve  friendly  relations  with 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  AND  DEFENSE  137 

the  other  nations  of  the  world  and  at  the  same  time  protect 
the  interests  of  its  own  citizens. 

A  MBA  SSADORS  A  ND  MINISTERS.  1 1  has  long  been 
the  custom  of  every  civilized  nation  to  keep  at  the  capital  of 
every  other  nation  a  permanent  representative  known  as  an 
ambassador  or  minister.  The  United  States  sends  ambassa- 
dors to  thirteen  of  the  more  important  nations  of  the  world, 
and  to  nearly  all  of  the  other  countries  it  sends  ministers. 
At  Washington  there  are  ambassadors  and  ministers  who  are 
sent  from  these  countries  to  the  United  States.  Through 
these  representatives  nations  communicate  with  one  another. 
Ambassadors  and  ministers  help  to  keep  the  relations  between 
nations  peaceful,  for  they  are  always  at  hand  to  assist  in  the 
speedy  and  friendly  settlement  of  any  dispute  that  arises. 
They  also  keep  their  respective  nations  informed  as  to  what 
is  going  on  in  the  countries  to  which  they  are  sent. 

THE  MAKING  OF  TREATIES.  The  United  States 
makes  agreements  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects  with  the 
governments  of  other  nations.  These  agreements  are  known 
as  treaties.  In  many  ways  these  treaties  regulate  the  con- 
duct of  nations  toward  each  other  and  determine  the  rights  of 
their  citizens.  Were  it  not  for  treaties,  disagreements  be- 
tween nations  over  the  rights  of  their  respective  citizens  would 
be  much  more  frequent  than  they  are.  The  United  States 
has  more  than  three  hundred  such  treaties  in  force  today. 
Sometimes,  also,  the  nations  of  the  world  enter  into  uniform 
agreements  on  certain  important  matters  which  ought  to  be 
the  subject  of  general  regulation.  These  larger  agreements 
are  commonly  known  as  conventions. 

FOREIGN  COMMERCE.  No  state  has  any  power  to 
regulate  what  goods  shall  be  brought  into  the  state  from 
foreign  countries,  or  what  goods  shall  be  carried  out  of  the 
state.  The  control  over  foreign  commerce  is  placed  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  national  government.  The  United  States 
government    has    entered   into    many    treaties    with    foreign 


138    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 


governments  for  the  regulation  of  matters  pertaining  to  com- 
merce. By  law  also  duties  have  been  imposed  on  many 
articles  that  are  brought  into  this  country  from  abroad.  We 
shall  see  in  a  later  connection  that  certain  restrictions  are 
placed  on  the  power  of  the  national  government  to  levy 
duties  on  imports;  and  we  shall  also  see  how  the  government 
undertakes  in  many  ways  to  promote  the  trade  of  American 
citizens  with  the  citizens  of  foreign  countries. 


THE  AMERICAN   FLEET 
Leaving  Hampton  Roads,  Virginia,  in  the  autumn  of  1907  on  a  famous  cruise 

around   the  world 

IMMIGRATION.  For  many  years  the  United  States 
has  attracted  large  numbers  of  foreigners  from  the  various 
nations  of  Europe  and  Asia.  These  people,  coming  in  many 
cases  from  lands  of  oppression  and  poverty,  have  looked  upon 
the  United  States  as  a  land  of  opportunity  and  promise. 
They  swarm  over  the  seas  by  thousands  every  year.  Indeed, 
more  than  a  million  of  them  have  sometimes  come  to  us  in  a 
single  j'ear. 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  AND  DEFENSE  139 

The  United  States  has  the  power,  of  course,  to  impose  what- 
ever conditions  it  chooses  upon  the  entrance  of  these  foreigners 
into  our  country.  Indeed,  the  government  may  prohibit 
them  from  landing  at  all.  For  the  most  part,  however,  it 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  government  to  extend  its  arms 
generously  to  those  who  have  sought  refuge  among  us.  The 
government  imposes  certain  minor  restrictions  on  every 
foreigner  who  seeks  entrance  to  this  country;  but  these  re- 
strictions are  intended  merely  to  prevent  criminals,  paupers, 
diseased,  and  insane  persons  from  coming  in.  The  govern- 
ment also  imposes  a  tax  of  a  few  dollars  on  every  foreigner 
who  enters.  The  only  people  who  are  now  absolutely  denied 
permission  to  enter  the  country  are  certain  classes  of  the 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  other  Asiatic  peoples.  This  ex- 
clusion of  Orientals  has  been  made  at  the  demand  of  the  people 
who  reside  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  large  numbers  of  these 
people  have  settled. 

Foreigners  of  the  same  nation  frequently  settle  together  in 
some  part  of  the  country  or  in  some  section  of  one  of  our  large 
cities.  There  they  retain  their  foreign  language  and  customs. 
They  thus  become  a  danger  to  our  country,  for  they  do  not 
understand  our  life  and  government.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  foreigners  soon  lose  their  foreign  characteristics  and 
adopt  our  language  and  our  customs.  In  other  words,  they 
become  truly  Americanized.  The  school  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  means  by  which  the  children  of  these  foreigners 
are  taught  to  understand  our  ways  of  living  and  thinking. 

NATURALIZATION.  The  national  government  pro- 
vides that  in  due  course  of  time  these  foreigners  may  become 
American  citizens  by  a  process  called  naturalization.  Before 
a  foreigner  can  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  he  must  have  resided  in  this  country  at  least  five  years, 
and  he  must  have  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen 
at  least  two  years  before  he  is  admitted  to  citizenship.  He 
must  solemnly  swear  that  he  no  longer  owes  allegiance  to 


140    GOVERNMENT  AND  I'OLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

any  foreign  government,  and  that  he  recognizes  only  his  duty 
and  his  obligation  toward  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  After  a  foreigner  has  been  granted  his  naturaHza- 
tion  papers  by  the  g<^)\ernment,  he  enjoys  the  same  privileges 
that  belong  to  a  natural  born  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

THE  MAKING  OF  WAR.  In  spite  of  all  the  means  that 
are  provided  for  keeping  peace  between  nations,  disagree- 
ments sometimes  arise  which  cannot  be  settled  peacefulh'. 
Appeal  must  then  be  made  to  arms.  In  the  United  States, 
Congress  alone  has  the  power  to  declare  war  against  a  foreign 
nation.  It  would  naturally  be  absurd  to  permit  the  govern- 
ment of  this  or  that  state  to  exercise  this  important  power 
whenever  it  chose  to  do  so. 

THE  ARMY  AND  THE  MHITIA.  The  different  na- 
tions of  Europe  are  situated  so  close  to  one  another  that  dis- 
agreements are  likely  to  arise  frequently  among  them.  As  a 
rule,  therefore,  most  of  them  have,  at  great  expense  and  sacri- 
fice, maintained  large  standing  armies.  The  United  States  is 
not  surrounded  by  numerous  foreign  nations.  We  occupy 
the  major  part  of  a  whole  continent,  and  we  are  the  most 
powerful  nation  on  the  continent.  Not  fearing  the  possibility 
of  the  landing  of  European  troops  upon  our  soil,  it  has  been 
our  policy  from  the  beginning  of  our  nation  to  maintain  a  very 
small  standing  army.  The  great  European  War  which  began 
in  1914  called  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
to  the  fact  that,  with  the  marvelous  development  of  ocean 
transportation,  we  are  no  longer  as  safe  from  attack  as  we 
formerly  were.  Moreover,  we  have  important  islands  in  the 
far  seas  which  it  is  our  duty  to  protect.  No  nation  can  pro- 
vide, train,  and  equip  an  army  of  considerable  numbers  in  a 
few  weeks  or  even  a  few  months.  The  prol)ability  is  that  the 
United  States  will,  as  time  goes  on,  be  compelled  to  abandon 
(to  some  extent)  its  policy  of  maintaining  a  very  small  stand- 
ing army. 

The  United  States  army  is  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  AND  DEFENSE 


141 


defending  the  nation  against  enemies  from  without.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  used  to  preserve  the  peace  within  the 
states.  However,  troops  of  the  army  are  never  sent  to  the 
aid  of  any  state  unless  the  government  or  legislature  of  that 
state  requests  the  President  to  send  them.  This  is  done  only 
when  the  state  militia  are  unable  to  handle  the  situation. 

Very  occasionally  troops  of  the  United  States  army  are 
used  to  enforce  the  laws  of  the  nation.     In  1894,  for  example. 


(.Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood) 

COAST  DEFENSE  GUNS 

These  twelve-inch  guns  fire  a  steel  projectile  weighing  seven  hundred  and  fifty 

pounds  across  a  range  of  seven  miles 

there  was  a  large  strike  among  railway  employes  at  Chicago, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  railway  centers  in  the 
United  States.  Commerce  between  the  states  was  seriously 
interfered  with,  and  trains  carrying  the  United  States  mails 
were  held  up.  President  Cleveland  sent  the  United  States 
troops  to  put  down  the  disturbance  in  order  that  the  trains 


142    C.U\  KRNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

might  continue,  under  the  laws  of  Congress,  to  carry  the  mails 
and  the  commerce  going  from  one  state  into  another. 

We  have  seen  that  there  is  in  the  state  of  Virginia  an  or- 
ganized miHtia  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  peace  of  the 
state  in  times  of  unusual  disturbance.  In  nearly  all  of  the 
other  states  similar  provision  is  made  for  maintaining  com- 
panies of  miHtia,  these  companies  being  known  as  the  Na- 
tional Guard.     State  miHtia  companies  are  organized  and 


LAUNCHING  OF  THE  BATTLESHIP  PENNSYLVANIA 
This  ship,  built  and  launched  at  Newport  News,  Virginia,  is  one  of  the  most 

powerful  battleships  afloat 


discipHned  in  much  the  same  way  as  are  the  troops  of  the 
United  States  army,  although  the  militiamen,  being  employed 
in  other  occupations,  give  of  course  only  a  small  part  of  their 
time  to  this  work.  The  militia  companies,  however,  are  a 
supijlement  to  the  regular  army  and  may  be  called  into  the 
service  of  the  United  States  to  suppress  insurrection  and  repel 
invasion. 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  AND  DEFENSE  143 

COAST  DEFENSES.  It  is  necessary  that  the  seaports 
of  our  country  should  be  fortified  against  attacks  that  might 
be  made  by  the  war  vessels  of  an  enemy.  At  many  important 
points  along  the  seacoast  strong  forts  are  built  w  ith  powerful 
batteries  of  large  guns.  Fortress  Monroe  is  the  chief  coast 
defense  that  is  provided  in  Virginia  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  government  is  planning,  however,  to  fortify  also 
Cape  Henry  and  Cape  Charles.  Should  a  war  break  out,  and 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  be  in  danger  of  attack,  the 
government  is  prepared  to  strew  what  are  known  as  mines 
in  the  waters  along  the  seacoast  in  order  to  prevent  the  near 
approach  of  enemy  vessels.  These  mines  are  sunk  a  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  water  and  are  so  constructed  that  if 
struck  by  a  vessel  they  will  explode  and  destroy  the  vessel. 

THE  NA  VY.  If  the  United  States  should  go  to  war  with 
any  nation  of  Europe  or  Asia,  much  of  the  fighting  would  be 
likely  to  take  place  on  the  water.  Indeed,  with  a  powerful 
navy,  consisting  of  many  war  vessels  of  the  different  kinds 
that  are  needed,  we  should  probably  be  able  to  prevent  any 
serious  attempt  to  land  hostile  troops  upon  our  shore.  If  we 
destroyed  or  seriously  crippled  the  navy  of  the  enemy,  it 
would  be  impossible  for  the  enemy  to  approach  our  shores 
with  ships  filled  with  troops.  It  is  because  of  this  fact  that 
the  national  government  has  provided  a  navy,  which  is  being 
annually  enlarged  and  strengthened.  Since  we  acquired  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  built  the  Panama  Canal,  the  need  for 
a  strong  navy  is  even  more  apparent  than  it  was  formerly. 
The  protection  of  these  outlying  possessions  against  an  enemy 
is  largely  dependent  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  navy. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Does  the  state  of  Virginia  maintain  an  army?  A  navy?  A  postal 
system?  Does  it  build  forts  and  protect  harbors?  Make  treaties?  Send 
diplomatic  representatives  to  foreign  nations?  Coin  money?  Issue 
paper  money?     Show  how  each  of  these  things  is  necessary  for  our  pro- 


144    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

tectioii  or  welfare.     By  whom  are  these  things  undertaken,  and  why? 
Explain,  then,  the  necessity  for  our  national  government. 

2.  In  what  ways  do  the  people  of  the  United  States  associate  with 
the  people  of  foreign  countries?  Suppose  a  dispute  arises  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain;  who  settles  it?  Who  has  control  over 
all  our  foreign  affairs,  and  why? 

3.  Could  the  state  of  Virginia  make  a  treaty  with  Germany?  Why? 
Explain  how  treaties  between  the  United  States  and  a  foreign  govern- 
ment are  made.  Why  are  they  made?  How  do  they  help  us  as  a  nation? 
Mention  some  of  the  treaties  you  have  learned  about  in  history.  Why 
were  they  made? 

4.  \Miat  are  ambassadors  and  ministers?  Does  Virginia  appoint  or 
receive  ambassadors  and  ministers?  \Miy?  \\]\o  chooses  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  United  States?  Where  are  they  sent?  Why  are 
they  sent?  A\'hat  is  tlie  difference  between  an  ambassador  and  a  minister? 
Find  out,  if  you  can,  to  which  countries  the  United  States  sends  ambassa- 
dors. Find  out,  if  you  can,  the  names  of  some  of  our  present  diplomatic 
reju-esentatives.  To  what  covmtri(>s  are  they  soiit?  Try  to  recall  from 
your  history  some  distin;'  uished  statesmen  who  have  represented  us  abroad. 

5.  In  the  United  States  who  has  the  power  to  declare  war,  and  why? 
^^'ho  controls  foreign  commerce,  and  why?  Who  makes  regulations  for 
the  vessels  and  goods  which  come  from  abroad  and  land  at  the  scajiorts 
of  Virginia? 

().  Who  maintains  our  army?  Is  it  large  or  small,  and  why?  Why  is 
the  army  maintained?  \Mien  may  national  troops  be  sent  to  protect  life 
and  property  within  some  state?  How  is  the  army  used  to  enforce  the 
laws  of  the  nation?  Do  you  recall  any  instance  of  this?  What  part 
does  the  state  mi'itia  have  in  the  defence  of  the  nation? 

7.  Exi)lain  why  the  United  States  is  obligated  to  maintain  a  large 
navy.  Ex])lain  how  the  seacoast  is  protected.  Where  is  Fortress  Mtmroe? 
Have  you  ever  seen  it?  Tell  all  you  know  about  it.  Why  should  Cape 
Charles  and  Cape  Henry  be  fortified?     What  are  mines? 

<S.  What  people  are  known  as  inunigrants?  Where  do  they  come  from, 
and  why?  ^^'hat  restrictions  are  im];osed  ujjon  immigrants  who  seek 
admission  to  the  United  States?  Why  are  Orientals  largely  excluded? 
Why  do  some  immigrants  fail  to  become  Americanized?  What  role  do 
the  schools  play  in  the  process  of  Americanizing  these  foreigners? 

0.  \\  hat  is  the  meaning  of  naturalization?  Do  you  know  any  ])erson 
who  has  been  naturalized?  Where  was  he  born?  Has  he  the  same  rights 
that  you  have?  What  duty  does  he  owe  the  government  of  the  United 
States?  How  does  a  foreigner  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United 
States? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES 

PROMOTION  OF  FOREIGN  COMMERCE.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  the  fact  that  the  national  government  has 
complete  power  to  regulate  the  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries.  The  government  does  many 
things  to  help  American  citizens  to  secure  markets  abroad  for 
their  goods.  To  many  of  the  important  cities  of  the  world 
the  United  States  sends  representatives  known  as  consuls- 
general  or  consuls.  It  also  sends  to  a  few  countries  officers 
known  as  commercial  attaches.  These  officers,  as  well  as 
other  special  agents  of  the  government,  gather  a  great  deal  of 
information  that  is  of  value  to  American  manufacturers  and 
merchants.  This  information  is  published  by  the  govern- 
ment for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  interested. 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE.  In  this  day  of  frequent 
travel  and  of  large  activity  in  commerce  between  different 
parts  of  the  United  States,  we  sometimes  almost  forget  that 
there  are  any  boundaries  between  the  states.  Goods  are 
sent  from  one  state  to  another  as  easily  and  as  frequently  as 
they  are  sent  from  one  local  community  to  another.  This 
would  not  be  the  case,  of  course,  if  each  state  had  the  power 
to  restrict  people  or  goods  from  coming  in  from  another  state. 
If  this  were  so,  a  great  deal  of  confusion  would  naturally  re- 
sult, and  much  of  our  travel  and  commerce  would  be  in- 
terrupted or  destroyed.  To  avoid  this  difficulty  the  national 
government  is  given  complete  control  over  interstate  com- 
merce— that  is,  commerce  passing  from  one  state  to  another. 

It  has  been  the  general  policy  of  the  national  government 
to  permit  commerce  to  be  carried  on  between  the  states  with- 
out restrictions  of  any  kind.     In  a  few  important  instances, 

145 


146    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

however,  the  national  government  has  imposed  restrictions 
upon  such  commerce.  We  ha\e  seen  that  the  government  of 
X'irginia  regulates  the  rates  and  the  service  of  raiUvay  com- 
panies and  of  telephone,  telegraph,  and  express  companies. 
Most  of  these  companies,  however,  operate  beyond,  as  well  as 
within,  the  boundaries  of  X'irginia.  Naturalh'  the  govern- 
ment of  X'irginia  cannot  control  their  operations  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  state,  nor  can  the  state  government  control  their 
operations  within  the  state  in  such  way  as  to  interfere  with 
their  interstate  business.  The  national  government,  there- 
fore, undertakes  to  regulate  the  rates  and  the  service  of  such 
companies  so  far  as  these  matters  are  a  part  of  the  interstate 
business  of  the  companies.  In  other  words,  the  power  to 
control  these  companies  is  divided  between  the  state  govern- 
ment on  the  one  hand  and  the  national  government  on  the 
other. 

The  national  government  also  undertakes  to  prohibit  the 
formation  of  enormous  companies — trusts  they  are  commonly 
called — which  seek  in  one  way  or  another  to  control  this  or 
that  kind  of  business  throughout  the  country  and  thus  to 
charge  as  high  prices  as  they  choose.  The  government  also 
endeavors  to  prevent  persons  and  companies  engaged  in  inter- 
state business  from  adopting  business  methods  and  practices 
that  are  unfair.  This  field  of  the  national  government's 
activity  is,  however,  exceedingly  complicated.  It  is  a  sub- 
ject which  can  be  clearly  understood  only  by  trained  lawyers. 

NA  VIGATION  SERVICES.  In  connection  with  the  regu- 
lation of  foreign  and  domestic  commerce,  the  national  govern- 
ment undertakes  to  control  and  regulate  many  matters  per- 
taining to  the  navigation  of  boats.  In  the  first  place,  in  order 
to  promote  the  safety  of  passengers  and  crews,  the  govern- 
ment imposes  many  regulations  upon  those  who  operate 
boats.  The  government  also  has  inspectors  to  examine  boats 
to  see  that  these  rules  are  complied  with.  In  the  second 
place,  the  government  establishes    lighthouses  and  maintains 


COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES    147 

light-ships,  buoys,  and  other  aids  to  navigation.  Without 
these  aids,  accidents  upon  the  rivers,  bays,  and  oceans  would  be 
far  more  frequent  than  they  are.  In  the  third  place,  the  gov- 
ernment maintains  an  elaborate  life-saving  service.  Scattered 
all  along  the  coasts,  the  great  lakes,  and  many  rivers  are 
what  are  known  as  life-saving  stations,  where  crews  of  strong 
men  with  life-saving  boats  and  equipment  stand  ready  to  give 
help  to  any  vessel  in  distress. 


THE  LIGHTHOUSES  AT  CAPE  HENRY 

In  the  center  of  the  picture  stands  the  new  tower,  the  light  from  which  may  be 

seen  many  miles  out  at  sea.     To  the  left  the  apparatus  of  the 

United  States  wireless  telegraph  station  is  shown 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL  AND  RIVER  AND  HARBOR 
IMPROVEMENTS.  In  order  to  facilitate  commerce  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  as  well  as  with  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  the  Orient,  the  national  government 
has  at  enormous  expense  constructed  the  Panama  Canal. 
This  canal  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  government.  From 
time  to  time,  also,  the  government  spends  a  great  deal  of 
money  in  dredging  and  otherwise  improving,  for  purposes  of 
navigation,  rivers  and  harbors  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 


148    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

It  is  regrettable,  however,  that  this  money  is  not  always  de- 
voted to  the  improvements  that  are  most  urgently  needed. 

CONTROL  OVER  INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  IN 
FOODS  AND  DRUGS.  We  have  ^een  that  our  state  and 
local  governments  undertake  in  many  ways  to  protect  the 
people  as:,ainst  impure  foods.  To  the  extent,  however,  that 
these  foods  are  shipped  across  state  lines  they  are  subject  to 
control  by  the  national  government.  In  1906  the  national 
government  passed  a  law  known  as  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act 
and  another  law  known  as  the  Meat  Inspection  Act.  Under 
this  last  mentioned  law,  the  government  maintains,  at  all  of 
the  large  plants  where  meat  is  prepared  and  canned,  inspectors 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  no  diseased  meat  and  no  injurious 
substances  get  into  the  packages  which  are  to  be  distributed 
over  the  country  for  sale.  The  government  does  not  maintain 
inspection  at  plants  in  which  such  things  as  vegetables  and 
fruits  are  canned  and  breakfast  foods  and  other  package 
foods  are  put  up.  The  government  does,  hov.cver,  buy  up 
samples  of  these  things  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  if  it 
is  found  that  any  canner  or  manufacturer  has  violated  the 
law,  the  government  provides  that  he  shall  be  punished. 

THE  INTERESTS  OF  LABOR.  We  have  seen  that  the 
state  of  Mrginia  enacts  laws  for  the  special  protection  of 
those  who  are  employed  as  laborers  in  the  state.  Nearl}-  all 
regulations  of  tliis  kind  are  made  b\'  the  several  states  of  the 
I'nion.  The  national  go\ernment,  however,  makes  many  in- 
vestigations concerning  the  conditions  under  which  laborers 
are  employed  in  the  United  States,  collects  a  great  deal  of 
information  on  this  subject,  and  in  many  ways  endeavors  to 
promote  the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes.  The  govern- 
ment is  especially  interested  in  investigating  the  conditions 
under  which  children  are  employed  in  labor. 

THE  POSTAL  SER  VICE.  The  business  of  carr>'ing  the 
mails  is  owned  and  operated  exclusively  by  the  national  gov- 
ernment.    This  great  business  of  the  government  probably 


COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUS  IRIES    149 


brings  it  in  closer  relations  with  the  everyday  life  of  the  people 
than  any  of  its  other  activities.  Post  offices  are  established 
everywhere  throughout  the  country,  and  everybody  is  more  or 
less  directly  dependent  upon  the  service  which  the  government 
thus  provides. 

The  government  realizes  that  quick  and  cheap  postal  service 
is  very  necessary  for  the  progress  and  development  of  the 
country.  The  charges  for  postage  have,  in  the  course  of 
time,  been  greatly  reduced.     On  account  of  their  weight, 


THE  POST  OFFICE  AT  RICHMOND,  VIRGINIA 

newspapers  and  magazines  are  of  course  more  expensive  to 
carry  than  letters;  yet  because  these  things  promote  the 
general  knowledge  and  information  of  the  people,  the  govern- 
ment carries  them  at  lower  rates  than  are  charged  for  letters, 
even  though  this  policy  results  in  a  great  loss. 

Within  recent  years  the  postal  service  has  been  improved 
m  a  number  of  important  ways.     The  government  has  es- 


ISOr.OVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

tablishcd,  for  example,  what  are  known  as  "rural  free  de- 
liveries," so  that  the  farmer  now  has  his  letters  and  newspapers 
brought  promptly  to  his  gate,  just  as  in  cities  mail  matter  is 
delivered  directly  to  the  houses  of  the  people.  Tlie  govern- 
ment has  also  introduced  into  the  mail  ser\  ice  what  is  known 
as  the  "parcel  post."  h'or  a  long  time  small  packages  have 
been  carried  in  the  mails.  The  government  now  carries  in 
the  parcel  post  any  package  of  merchandise  that  is  not  more 
than  seven  feet  in  length  and  girth  combined  and  that  does 


(Copyriijht,  Underwood   &L'h.. 

BUSY  SCENE  IN  A  CITY  POSTOFFICE 

Handling  thousands  of  parcel  post  packages  at  the  Christmas  season 


not  weigh  more  than  twenty  pounds.  Indeed,  the  govern- 
ment will  receive  and  transport  for  limited  distances  packages 
weighing  as  much  as  fifty  pounds.  The  charges  for  carrying 
packages  in  the  parcel  post  vary  with  the  weight  of  the  package 
and  the  distance  it  is  to  be  carried.  Still  another  reform  in 
the   postal    service   has   been    the   establishment   of    "postal 


COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES    151 

savings  banks."  These  banks  were  provided  chiefly  for 
those  who  were  unwilHng  to  put  their  savings  in  banks  that 
were  privately  owned  and  for  those  who  could  not  convenient- 
ly do  this.     The  government  itself  guarantees  the  safety  of 


(Copyright,  Undenvood  &  Underwood) 
COUNTING  COIN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  TREASURY  VAULTS 
In  the  bags  here  shown  there  are  $156,708,960  in  silver  dollars;  $2,000,000  in  half- 
dollars  and  quarters;  as  well  as  some  gold  coins,  nickeis,  and 
pennies.  The  counting  is  done  largely  by  weighing  the  bags 

the  deposits  in  these  banks  and  pays  a  low  rate  of  interest  on 
them. 

l^HE  MONEY  SYSTEM.     If  each  state  of  the  Union  had 
the  power  to  coin  its  own  money  and  regulate  its  own  money 


152    C.oViyKXMF.Xr  AXn  I'Dl  TTirs  TX  VIRC'.IXIA 

s>-stem,  it  is  easy  to  imaiiine  what  confusion  would  result. 
We  should  have  to  keep  in  mind  the  value  of  the  coins  of  forty- 
eight  different  states.  This  would  be  annoying  beyond  de- 
scription. For  this  reason  the  national  government  is  given 
the  power  to  establish  one  money  system  throughout  the  entire 
country. 

In  order  that  we  may  be  protected  against  frauds,  the 
national  government  itself  undertakes  to  coin  the  money  that 
is  used  by  the  people  and  prohibits  private  individuals  from 
doing  so.  The  coins  are  made  in  the  United  States  mints. 
The  government  punishes  any  person  who  attempts  to  dupli- 
cate or  counterfeit  United  States  coins.  The  national  govern- 
ment also  provides  for  the  issue  of  paper  money.  It  must  not 
be  thought,  however,  that  the  government  can  issue  any 
amount  of  paper  money  that  it  chooses.  A  great  many  people 
have  this  foolish  idea.  It  is  impossible  briefly  to  describe 
the  various  kinds  of  paper  money  that  are  issued.  It  is 
necessary  to  understand,  however,  that  a  one  dollar,  five 
dollar,  or  twenty  dollar  bill  is  nothing  more  than  the  promise 
of  the  government  (or  of  some  bank  authorized  by  the  gov- 
ernment) to  pay  this  amount  of  money  in  gold  or  silver  coins. 
The  government  sees  to  it  that  sufficient  coins  are  on  hand  to 
meet  these  money  promises  which  are  used  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  in  the  form  of  paper  money.  People  very  seldom 
make  a  demand  for  the  actual  payment  of  these  promises; 
but  if  the  government  failed  to  keep  enough  coins  on  hand  to 
pay  them,  the  people  would  soon  learn  this  fact  and  paper 
money  issued  by  the  government  would  become  of  less  value, 
if  not  indeed  wholly  worthless.  The  state  governments  are 
forbidden  either  to  coin  money  or  to  issue  paper  money. 

rilE  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM.  Many  of  our 
banks  are  organized  under  state  laws  and  are  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  states.  Many  banks,  however,  are  known  as 
national  banks,  and  these  are  organized  under  national  laws 
and  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the  national  government. 


COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES    153 

There  are  thousands  of  such  banks  scattered  throughout  the 
country.  It  is  only  these  national  banks  that  are  permitted  to 
issue  paper  money,  and  they  can  make  such  issues  only  by 
complying  with  very  strict  requirements  of  the  law. 

The   national    government    has    also    established   what   is 


(Copyright,  Underwood  &  Uiuierwood) 

A  STAMP-PRINTING  MACHINE 
This  machine  prints,  gums,  perforates,  and  coils  300,000  stamps  per  day 


known  as  a  system  of  federal  reserve  banks.  There  are  twelve 
such  banks,  in  the  country,  each  of  them  operating  in  one  of 
the  twelve  reserve  districts  into  which  the  United  States  is 
divided.     One  of  these  banks  is  located  at  Richmond.     The 


154    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

federal  reserve  system  is  so  complicated  that  it  seems  un- 
necessary to  attempt  to  describe  its  many  operations.  It  is 
sufficient  to  note  that  it  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the 
regulation  of  the  currency  and  the  banking  business  in  the 
country. 

PATENTS  AND  COPYRIGHTS.  When  a  person  av rites 
a  book  or  invents  a  machine  his  book  or  his  invention  is  really 
a  part  of  his  property.  Unless  he  is  protected  in  this  property, 
however,  someone  else  may  reprint  his  book  or  manufacture 
his  machine  without  his  consent.  This  would  deprive  him 
of  his  just  profits.  In  order  to  encourage  authors  and  in- 
ventors the  government  provides  them  with  protection  for 
their  work.  To  the  author  it  issues  what  is  known  as  a  copy- 
right, and  to  the  inventor  what  is  known  as  a  patent.  It  is 
made  unlawful  for  an\onc,  except  the  owner  of  a  copyright 
or  patent,  to  publish  a  book  that  has  been  copsrighted  or  to 
manufacture  a  machine  or  other  device  that  has  been  patented. 

PUBLIC  LANDS  AND  FORESTS.  The  United  States 
government  formerly  possessed  in  its  own  name  a  great  deal 
of  the  land  in  the  country.  Most  of  this  has  been  sold  to 
private  persons,  although  a  considerable  part  of  it  was  turned 
over  to  certain  railway  companies  in  order  to  encourage  the 
building  of  railway  lines;  and  another  considerable  part  of 
it  was  given  to  certain  states  to  aid  in  the  development  of 
their  educational  s\'stems.  The  national  government  still 
owns  some  of  the  land,  this  being  located  chiefly  in  the  western 
states.  Some  of  this  land  is  unproductive  because  of  the  dry- 
ness of  the  climate.  The  government  in  many  places  has 
undertaken  to  reclaim  this  arid  land  by  constructing  large 
irrigation  systems. 

The  government  has  set  aside  in  the  western  states  large 
tracts  of  forest  lands  with  the  intention  of  preserving  the 
forests  against  destruction.  Recenth',  moreover,  the  gov- 
ernment has  purchased  certain  forest  lands  in  the  east,  these 
lands  being  in  the  White  and  tiie  Appalachian  Mountains. 


COMMERCE,  FINANCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES    155 

A  few  of  these  recently  purchased  forest  lands  are  in  the 
state  of  Virginia.  The  government  permits  certain  timber 
to  be  cut  from,  and  other  uses  to  be  made  of,  these  forest 
lands.  In  many  ways,  also,  it  encourages  the  preservation 
of  forest  lands  and  endeavors  to  protect  them  from  devastat- 
ing fires. 

PROMOTION  OF  AGRICULTURE.  We  have  seen  that 
our  state  government  undertakes  in  many  ways  to  further 
the  interests  of  those  who  earn  their  living  by  farming.     The 


FOREST  DEPREDATION 
Showing  an  oak  tree  ruined  by  "girdling,"  the  bark  being  stripped  off  to  be  used 
as  a  carrier  for  huckleberries.  This  is  one  kind  of  destruction 
that  the    Forest  Service    seeks  to  prevent 


national  government  also  undertakes  to  promote  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  the  people.  It  collects  and  publishes  a 
great  deal  of  valuable  information  on  almost  every  subject 
that  is  of  interest  to  farmers.  It  maintains  experiment 
stations  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  also  contributes 
a  good  deal  of  money  for  agricultural  education  in  the  various 
states. 


156    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1 .  Can  ^'irp;inia  ])roliibit  pprsons  from  rnminn  into  the  stato  from  Mary- 
land, West  Virfiinia,  Kentucky,  f)r  North  Carolina?  Can  \irginia  i)ro- 
iiihit  goods  from  lieing  broupiht  in  from  these  states?  Why?  What  do 
we  mean  by  interstate  commerce?  \Mio  controls  it?  Why?  To  what 
extent  does  the  national  government  control  railways,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone companies?     ^^'hy? 

2.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  life-saving  station  or  a  lighthouse?  If  so, 
describe  it.  Who  maintains  these  things,  and  why?  Why  and  by  whom 
was  the  Panama  Canal  constructed? 

3.  To  what  extent  and  how  does  the  national  government  protect  us 
against  impure  foods? 

4.  Where  is  your  nearest  post  office?  Who  maintains  it?  Why? 
Tell  all  that  you  know  about  the  postal  service  in  your  community.  Why 
are  newspapers  and  magazines  carried  for  less  than  letters?  What  is  the 
parcel  post?  A  postal  savings  bank?  Why  were  these  reforms  intro- 
duced? How  heavy  a  letter  can  j^ou  send  for  two  cents?  Fintl  out  how 
much  it  would  cost  to  send  a  package  weighing  ten  pounds  from  your 
post  office  to  Washington.  To  New  York.  To  Chicago.  What  are 
patents  and  copyrights?  By  whom  are  they  issued  and  why?  Look  in 
the  front  of  one  of  your  school  books  and  see  who  copyrighted  it.  What 
does  this  mean?  Have  you  ever  seen  any  article  marked  "patented"  or 
"patent  applied  for"?  Tell  about  the  article  and  explain  why  it  was 
patented. 

5.  Who  coins  the  money  we  use?  Why  is  Virginia  not  permitted  to 
coin  monej^?  What  is  a  mint?  Why  does  the  national  government  main- 
tain mints?  What  is  meant  by  counterfeiting?  Why  is  it  made  a  crimi- 
nal offense?  What  is  paper  money?  Who  issues  it?  Why?  Does  Vir- 
ginia issue  any  paper  money?  Why?  Can  the  national  government  issue 
any  amount  of  paper  money  it  chooses? 

6.  What  is  a  national  bank?     A  federal  reserve  bank? 

7.  \Miy  should  forest  lands  be  preserved?  Have  you  ever  seen  or 
heard  of  a  forest  fire?  How^  was  it  started?  Could  it  have  been  pre- 
vented? 

8.  Try  to  find  someone  in  your  community  who  has  secured  informa- 
tion or  assistance  from  the  National  Department  of  Agriculture.  What 
sort  of  information  or  assistance  did  he  secure? 


FOURTH  PART 
ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION 

THE  MEANING  OF  THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITU- 
TION. We  have  seen  that  the  government  of  Virginia  is 
organized  under  a  fundamental  law  which  is  known  as  the 
state  constitution.  Our  national  government  also  is  or- 
ganized under  a  constitution,  and  it  is  important  for  us  to 
understand  how  the  Union  of  states  came  to  be  formed,  and 
how  the  national  constitution  was  framed  and  established. 

THE  UNION  OF  THE  COLONIES  TO  FIGHT  FOR  IN- 
DEPENDENCE.  During  the  colonial  period  of  our  history 
each  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  under  the  control  of  the 
British  government.  There  was,  however,  no  sort  of  union 
which  bound  them  together.  Each  colony  was  independent 
of  the  others.  They  were  forced  to  join  hands  only  because 
the  Parliament  of  the  mother  country  began  to  oppress  them 
and  to  impose  upon  them  taxes  which  they  felt  were  unjust. 
They  realized  fully  that  if  their  revolt  against  this  oppression 
was  to  be  successful,  they  would  have  to  act  together.  In 
1774  the  colonists  therefore  determined  to  send  delegates  to 
what  was  known  as  a  Continental  Congress,  which  should 
represent  them  in  their  struggle  with  Great  Britain.  It  was 
this  Congress  that  issued  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
and  provided  for  carrying  on  the  Revolutionary  War.  The 
success  of  the  war  freed  the  colonies  from  British  control. 

157 


158    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

They  were  no  longer  dependent  colonies;  they  became  inde- 
pendent states. 

During  the  period  of  the  war  the  Continental  Congress 
exercised  whatever  powers  were  necessary.  But  naturally,  after 
peace  was  established,  the  people  were  unwilling  to  have  this 
Congress  govern  them  as  it  chose.  Even  while  the  war  was 
going  on,  steps  were  taken  to  determine  how  the  government 
of  the  Union  should  be  organized  and  what  powers  it  should 
exercise. 

UNION  UNDER  THE  ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERA- 
TION. In  1777  a  committee  of  the  Continental  Congress 
drew  up  a  plan  of  government  for  the  new  Union.  The  docu- 
ment which  they  prepared  was  known  as  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation. It  was  provided  that  this  government  should  not 
go  into  operation  until  every  one  of  the  thirteen  states  had 
agreed  to  accept  it.  In  1781  the  last  state  gave  its  consent, 
and  the  government  provided  by  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
was  set  in  motion. 

The  government  established  by  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion proved  to  be  very  unsatisfactory.  The  war  had  been 
costly,  and  the  states  were  deeply  in  debt.  Money  was 
needed  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  new  government;  yet 
the  government  had  no  adequate  way  of  raising  money.  It 
had  no  power  to  levy  taxes  upon  the  people.  It  had  to  call 
upon  the  different  states  to  contribute  to  its  support.  The 
Congress  of  the  Confederation  could  not  compel  the  states  to 
pay  their  contributions.  Indeed,  it  could  not  compel  obedi- 
ence to  any  of  the  laws  of  the  Union. 

Within  a  few  years  it  was  seen  that  the  government  estab- 
lished by  the  Articles  of  Confederation  was  a  hopeless  failure. 
More  than  one  attempt  was  made  to  give  the  Congress  of  the 
Union  additional  powers.  But  no  change  could  be  made 
without  the  consent  of  every  state;  and  this  it  was  impossible 
to  secure.  The  far-seeing  statesmen  of  the  time  realized  that 
if  the  Union  was  to  continue,  something  must  be  done  to 


THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  159 

increase  the  powers  of  the  national  government.  Washing- 
ton called  it  a  "half-starved,  limping  government,  always 
moving  upon  crutches,  and  tottering  at  every  step." 

Difficulties  had  early  arisen  betw^een  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land over  the  control  of  commerce  on  the  Potomac  River  and 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  these  states  seemed  unable  to  settle 
their  disputes.  In  1785  the  General  Assembly  of  Virginia 
invited  all  the  states  to  send  representatives  to  a  convention 
to  be  held  at  Annapolis  the  year  following.  This  convention 
was  called  merely  to  consider  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
Union.  Only  five  of  the  states  were  represented  when  the 
delegates  came  together.  But  a  stirring  address  was  issued 
calling  upon  the  states  to  send  delegates  to  another  conven- 
tion which  should  meet  the  next  year  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
vising the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

THE  CON  ST  IT  UT  TONAL  CON  VENT  ION  OF  1787.  The 
Convention  which  was  thus  proposed  assembled  in  Phila- 
delphia in  May,  1787.  It  was  composed  of  delegates  from 
every  state  except  Rhode  Island.  Nearly  all  the  truly  great 
men  of  that  time  were  among  its  members.  Washington  was 
its  president,  and  Virginia  was  also  represented  by  James 
Madison,  George  Mason,  and  Edmund  Randolph.  Jeffer- 
son was  not  a  member  of  this  convention,  for  at  this  time  he 
was  representing  the  government  of  the  United  States  in 
France.  Prominent  also  in  the  Convention  were  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  Alexander  Hamilton.  It  was  a  high-minded, 
patriotic,  and  noble  body  of  men,  which  met  at  a  critical  time 
to  determine  how  the  Union  might  be  strengthened  and  pre- 
served. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Convention  did  not  attempt  to  re- 
vise the  Articles  of  Confederation.  They  set  about  the  task  of 
drawing  up  a  completely  new  form  of  government.  After 
nearly  five  months  of  careful  deliberation,  their  work  was  com- 
pleted. They  had  framed  a  new  constitution  for  the  Union 
of  states. 


160    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

HOW  THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  WAS  MADE  EF- 
FECTIVE. The  Convention  sent  the  constitution  which 
they  had  framed  to  the  Congress  of  the  Union,  which  was  then 
in  session.  Th{?y  requested  that  this  Congress  should,  in 
turn,  send  it  to  the  several  states  for  consideration.  In  each 
of  the  thirteen  states  a  convention  representing  the  people  of 
the  state  was  called  together  to  decide  whether  the  state 
would  accept  or  reject  the  new  form  of  government.  Accord- 
ing to  the  plan  adopted  by  the  Convention,  the  constitution 
was  to  go  into  effect  whenever  nine  of  the  states  should  accept 
it.  By  this  action  of  its  own  convention  each  state  made  its 
own  choice.  No  state  was  compelled  to  adopt  the  proposed 
constitution. 

The  conventions  in  some  of  the  states  had  little  difficulty  in 
agreeing  to  adopt  the  new  form  of  union.  In  others,  however, 
the  constitution  hung  in  the  balance  for  months.  There 
were  several  reasons  why  the  proposed  constitution  met  with 
so  much  opposition.  The  states  had  but  recently  been  freed 
from  the  oppressive  yoke  of  Great  Britain.  They  were  now 
enjoying  independence,  and  they  feared  to  give  up  any  large 
amount  of  power  even  to  a  government  of  their  own  creation. 
They  were  afraid  that  as  states  they  would  be  deprived  of 
too  many  rights,  and  that  the  people  might  not  be  secure  in 
their  liberties.  This  was  perhaps  the  chief  objection  that  the 
new  constitution  had  to  overcome. 

Virginia  w  as  the  tenth  state  to  ratify  the  constitution.  The 
opposition  in  Virginia  was  led  by  Patrick  Henry,  who  pro- 
tested violently  against  granting  to  the  government  of  the 
I'nion  such  large  powers  as  the  constitution  provided  for.  In 
the  Virginia  convention  those  members  who  were  in  favor  of 
accepting  the  constitution  were  led  by  James  Madison.  In 
the  Constitutioned  Convention  at  Philadelphia,  it  was  Madi- 
son who  had  brought  forward  the  plan  of  government  which 
was,  after  many  changes,  finally  adopted.     In  the  end  he 


THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  161 

succeeded  in  carrying  a  small  majority  of  the  Virginia  con- 
vention in  favor  of  adoption. 

By  the  summer  of  1788  eleven  states  had  ratified  the  con- 
stitution. North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  alone  refused 
their  consent.  Indeed  they  did  not  come  in  as  members  of 
the  new  Union  until  after  the  government  had  gone  into 
operation.  Before  the  spring  of  1789,  Washington  had  been 
unanimously  chosen  the  first  President  of  the  United  States; 
and  the  members  of  the  first  national  Congress  had  been 
elected.  The  Congress  of  the  old  Confederation  passed  out  of 
existence,  and  the  government  provided  for  by  the  new  con- 
stitution, under  which  our  national  government  is  still  estab- 
lished, came  into  being. 

AMENDING  THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION.  We 
have  seen  that  our  state  constitution,  being  the  highest  law 
of  the  state,  is  considered  of  such  importance  that  the  legis- 
lature is  not  permitted  to  change  it.  This  is  true  also  of  our 
national  constitution.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  generally  that 
no  constitution  in  the  United  States,  whether  state  or  national, 
can  be  amended  simply  by  an  act  of  the  ordinary  law-making 
body. 

The  constitution  of  the  nation  provides  that  changes,  or 
amendments  as  they  are  called,  may  be  proposed  in  Congress. 
But  every  proposed  amendment  must  be  passed  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  each  house  of  Congress,  and  it  must  thereafter 
be  sent  to  the  states  for  consideration.  No  amendment  can 
become  a  part  of  the  constitution  until  it  has  received  the 
consent  of  the  legislatures  in  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
states.  The  constitution  also  provides  that,  upon  applica- 
tion of  the  legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  states,  Congress 
shall  call  a  convention  for  the  purpose  of  proposing  amend- 
ments, but  this  method  of  amending  the  constitution  has 
never  been  used. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  secure 
for  any  amendment  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  house  of 


162    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Congress  and  the  consent  of  three-fourths  of  the  states.  It  is, 
in  consequence,  very  difficult  to  amend  the  national  constitu- 
tion. Since  the  constitution  went  into  operation  in  1789, 
more  than  t\\'enty-five  hundred  amendments  have  been  pro- 
posed in  Congress.  Most  of  these  have  failed  to  secure  the 
necessary  two-thirds  vote,  and  nearly  all  of  the  others  have 
been  lost  when  they  have  been  submitted  to  the  states. 
Seventeen  amendments,  however,  have  been  adopted;  and  it 
is  of  interest  and  importance  to  note  how  these  amendments 
came  to  be  adopted. 

THE  FIRST  TEN  AMENDMENTS.  At  the  time  when 
the  constitution  was  being  discussed  in  the  different  state 
conventions  much  fear  was  expressed  that  it  did  not  contain 
sufficient  restrictions  upon  the  powers  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  people  were  afraid  that  the  new  government 
might  not  be  careful  to  protect  their  liberties.  Several  state 
conventions,  in  adopting  the  constitution,  proposed  that  cer- 
tain amendments  should  be  immediately  passed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  people's  liberties.  In  the  first  Congress 
that  met  under  the  new  constitution,  these  amendments  re- 
ceived the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  in  each  house  of  Con- 
gress, and  they  were  very  quickly  accepted  by  the  states. 
They  were  added  to  the  constitution  so  early  in  our  history 
that  we  may  almost  regard  them  as  a  part  of  the  original  con- 
stitution. 

These  ten  amendments  provide,  among  other  things,  for 
the  protection  of  our  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  and 
our  freedom  of  religion.  They  guarantee  us  the  right  of 
trial  by  jury  in  a  fair  and  open  court.  They  prohibit  the 
national  government  from  imposing  unreasonably  large  fines 
or  cruel  and  unusual  punishments,  or  from  making  unreason- 
able searches  of  our  dwellings  and  our  private  affairs.  They 
provide  also  that  our  private  property  shall  not  be  taken 
from  us  unless  we  are  justly  paid  for  it.  These  amendments 
protect  us  in  certain  of  our  rights  against  the  powers  of  the 


THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  163 

national  government  only.  It  is  important  to  note  that  they 
do  not  restrict  the  powers  of  the  states.  As  we  have  already 
learned,  it  is  by  means  of  our  state  constitution  that  we  are 
protected  in  these  matters  against  the  powers  of  our  state 
government. 

THE  ELE  VENTH  A MENDMENT.  In  1 793,  four  years 
after  the  new  government  had  been  established,  trouble  arose 
between  the  state  of  Georgia  and  the  government  of  the  United 
States  over  a  suit  that  was  brought  against  Georgia  in  the 
national  courts.  Georgia  thought  that  the  national  govern- 
ment had  no  power  to  force  any  state  to  come  before  its 
courts.  In  order  that  the  states  might  be  protected  against 
such  suits,  the  eleventh  amendment  was  passed. 

THE  TWELFTH  AMENDMENT.  The  original  method 
provided  in  the  constitution  for  electing  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  proved  to  be  very  awk- 
ward and  unsatisfactory.  In  the  year  1801  it  produced  serious 
trouble,  and  a  bitter  contest  resulted  before  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son finally  triumphed  over  Aaron  Burr.  A  few  years  after 
Jefferson's  inauguration  the  twelfth  amendment  was  passed 
by  Congress  and  adopted  by  the  necessary  number  of  states. 
It  provided  for  our  present  method  of  electing  the  President 
and  Vice-President,  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  examine 
at  a  later  point  in  our  study. 

THE  THREE  AMENDMENTS  THAT  RESULTED 
FROM  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  THE  STATES.  During 
the  period  of  our  history  just  after  the  War  Between  the  States, 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  amendments  were 
added  to  the  constitution.  They  were  intended  to  protect 
and  to  give  certain  rights  to  the  recently  freed  negroes. 

By  the  thirteenth  amendment  slavery  was  abolished 
throughout  the  United  States. 

The  fourteenth  amendm.ent  provides,  first  of  all,  that  "all 
persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  are  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  state  in  which  they  reside." 


164    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

This,  of  course,  grants  citizenship  to  the  negroes.  The 
amendment  provides  also  that  the  states  shall  give  to  all  per- 
sons equal  protection  of  the  laws,  and  guarantees  that  the 
national  government  will  protect  everybody,  in  his  life,  his 
liberty,  and  his  property,  against  any  unjust  action  on  the 
part  of  the  states.  This  amendment  does  not  mention  the 
negroes;  but  its  purpose  was  evidently  to  afford  tlum  ])rotec- 
tion  against  the  states. 

We  have  already  noted  the  (jualifications  which  our  own 
state  requires  of  those  who  wish  to  vote  at  elections  held  in 
Virginia.  Throughout  the  Union  each  state  determines  who 
shall  and  who  shall  not  vote  within  its  limits..  However,  by 
the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  it  is  provided 
that  no  state  can  deprive  any  person  of  his  riglit  to  vote  be- 
cause of  his  "race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 
The  purpose  of  this  amendment  was  to  prevent  the  southern 
states  from  depri\  ing  the  negro  of  his  right  to  vote  merely 
because  he  was  a  negro  and  because  he  h^id  been  a  slave. 

THE  INCOME  TAX  AMENDMENT.  As  we  shall  see 
later,  the  national  constitution  placed  certain  restrictions  on 
Congress  in  the  matter  of  levying  taxes.  One  of  these  re- 
strictions prevented  Congress  from  imposing  taxes  on  the 
j)eo])le  in  proportion  to  their  incomes.  In  1009  an  amend- 
ment removing  this  restriction  was  submitted  by  Congress 
to  the  states;  and  in  1013  tliis  amendment,  ha\  ing  been  ac- 
ce]:)ted  by  the  legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  states,  w;ls 
added  to  the  constitution  as  the  sixteenth  ameiulment. 

A  AMENDMENT  FOR  THE  DIRECT  ELECTION  OF 
UNITED  STATES  SENATORS.  The  constitution  did 
not  provide  for  the  election  of  senators  by  a  vote  of  the  people; 
it  provided  that  they  should  be  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  various  states.  There  were  many  disadvantages  in  choos- 
ing senators  in  this  manner.  The  position  of  United  States 
senator  is  usually  much  sought  after,  for  it  carries  with  it 
great  dignity  and  influence.     In  consequence  the  members  of 


THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  1(.5 

our  state  legislatures  were  often  chosen  solely  with  reference 
to  hoAV  they  would  vote  on  the  choice  of  a  United  States 
senator.  Our  state  law-makers  ought  to  be  chosen  wholly 
with  reference  to  their  al)ilily  to  make  proper  laws  for  the 
state.  Moreover,  it  frequently  happened  that  the  members  of 
a  state  legislature  were  unable  for  many  days  to  agree  on  the 
choice  of  a  United  States  senator.  The  result  was  that  the 
business  of  making  laws  for  the  state  was  seriously  delayed 
and  much  bitter  feeling  was  aroused.  On  several  occasions, 
in  this  or  that  state,  it  was  even  disclosed  that  the  friends  of 
certain  candidates  had  corrupted  the  members  of  the  legis- 
lature by  bu}ing  their  votes. 

For  many  years  efforts  were  made  to  change  this  method 
of  electing  United  States  senators.  This  necessitated  an 
amendment  to  the  national  constitution.  Finally,  on  May 
12,  1912,  an  amendment  providing  that  senators  should  be 
elected  by  a  direct  vote  of  the  people  of  the  several  states 
passed  both  houses  of  Congress  by  the  necessary  two-thirds 
vote  and  was  sent  to  the  state  legislatures.  Within  one  year 
it  had  been  ratified  by  the  legislatures  in  three-fourths  of  the 
states.  In  May,  1913,  it  was  added  to  the  constitution  as  the 
seventeenth  amendment. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  TODAY.  The  constitution  as 
it  now  stands  consists  of  the  original  text  as  it  came  from  the 
Convention  of  1787  and  the  seventeen  amendments  which 
have  been  added.  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  great  English  states- 
man, once  made  the  remark  that  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  is  the  greatest  work  ever  struck  off  at  any  one 
time  by  the  mind  and  purpose  of  man.  When  we  pause  to 
think  that  it  has,  with  few  changes,  stood  the  test  of  more 
than  a  century,  we  are  indeed  impressed  with  the  marvelous 
greatness  of  the  work  of  the  Convention  that  framed  it.  In 
1789  the  constitution  provided  a  national  government  for  a 
straggling  line  of  states  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  with  a 
population  of  only  a  few  millions.     Today  it  provides  for  the 


16()    (;OVERNMENT  AND  I'OLITirS  IN  VIRGINIA 

government  of  a  mighty  nation,  stretching  over  a  vast  conti- 
nent from  coast  to  coast  and  extending  its  arms  to  the  islands 
of  the  far  seas — a  nation  with  a  population  of  more  than 
ninety  millions  of  people. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Exi)lain  why  the  American  colonies  were  forced  to  unite  in  their 
struggle  against  the  mother  country.  What  were  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation? A\'iien  and  why  were  they  drawn  up?  7 low  were  they 
adopted?  Explain  wliy  the  govenmient  established  under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  proved  to  be  a  failure. 

2.  What  was  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787?  When,  where, 
and  why  did  it  assemble?  ^^'ho  were  the  delegates  from  Virginia?  \\'hat 
was  the  result  of  the  work  of  this  Convention?  Do  you  regard  this  Con- 
vention as  the  most  important  assembly  in  our  history?     Why? 

3.  How  was  the  constitution  ratified?  How  many  states  were  re- 
quired to  ratify  it  before  the  constitution  went  into  effect?  Why  did 
the  constitution  meet  with  ojjposition?  Describe  the  struggle  in  the  ^'ir- 
ginia  ratifying  convention.  When  was  the  new  government  set  in  mo- 
tion? 

4.  Explain  how  the  constitution  may  be  amended.  Is  it  difficult  or 
easy  to  change  our  constitution?  Do  you  regard  this  as  an  advantage  or 
a  disadvantage? 

5.  How  many  amendments  have  been  ])assed?  Explain  how  and  when 
the  first  ten  amendments  came  to  be  adoj)ted.  Why  was  the  eleventh 
amendment  adopted?     The  twelfth? 

6.  Tell  about  the  three  amendments  that  resulted  from  the  War  Be- 
tween the  States.  The  income  tax  amendment.  The  amendment  that 
provided  for  the  election  of  United  States  senators  by  a  vote  of  the  i)eople. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  SUPREMACY  OF  THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITU- 
TION 

THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE 
STATES.  We  have  seen  that,  in  addition  to  the  govern- 
ment of  our  state  (which  includes  and  controls  the  govern- 
ment of  our  local  communities),  there  is  a  national  govern- 
ment established  over  the  entire  Union  of  which  our  state  is  a 
part.  We  have  seen  also  that  this  national  government  is 
organized  under  the  constitution  which  was  framed  by  the 
Convention  of  1787.  All  of  us,  therefor^,  are  subject  not 
only  to  the  government  of  our  state,  but  also  to  the  govern- 
ment of  our  nation.  Each  of  these  governments  makes  its 
own  laws  and  has  its  own  officers  to  carry  them  out.  To 
each  of  them  we  owe  loyalty  and  obedience,  for  each  in  its 
own  way  helps  to  promote  our  safety,  peace,  and  happiness. 

It  is  perhaps  not  easy  to  understand  how  we  can  be  re- 
sponsible to  two  governments  at  the  same  time — how  we  can 
be  governed  by  two  distinct  groups  of  officers.  Our  national 
and  our  state  governments  are  not  independent  of  each  other. 
On  the  contrary,  each  is  dependent  on  the  other.  The  na- 
tional constitution  did  not  attempt  to  set  up  a  complete 
government.  At  the  time  of  its  adoption  the  state  govern- 
ments were  already  in  existence,  and  they  continued  to  exist. 
The  national  constitution  simply  made  a  division  of  poAvers 
between  the  government  of  the  nation  and  the  governments  of 
the  states.  Our  state  government  could  not  exist  alone;  for 
it  does  not  provide  for  maintaining  an  army  and  navy,  for 
the  regulation  of  foreign  affairs,  the  making  of  treaties,  the 
coining  of  money,  and  many  other  things  that  are  controlled 
by  the  government  of  the  nation.     Nor  could  our  national 

167 


168    C.OVERNMENT  AND  POLl'llCS  IN  VIRGINIA 

government  exist  without  the  states;  for  it  does  not  ])ro\'ide 
for  the  punishment  of  various  crimes,  the  regulation  of  ]")rop- 
erl>-,  the  building  of  roads,  the  support  of  schools,  the  general 
])rotcction  of  the  health  of  the  people,  nor  for  many  other 
things  that  are  undertaken  1)\'  the  state  governments. 

In  one  sense,  however,  the  national  gxnernment  is  inde- 
])endent  of  the  states,  and  the  states  are  indej)endent  of  the 
national  government.  All  the  powers  that  are  usually  exer- 
cised by  a  national  government  are,  in  the  United  States, 
divided  between  the  states  and  the  nation;  and  neither  can 
exercise  the  powers  belonging  pro])erly  to  the  other.  Each 
has  its  own  independent  sphere. 

THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  IS  THE  "SU- 
PREME LAW  OF  THE  LAND:'  The  constitution  de- 
clares emphatically  that  it  is  itself  the  supreme  law  of  the  land. 
This  means  that  the  national  government  cannot  pass  any 
law  or  do  any  act  which  violates  the  constitution.  It  also 
means  that  the  states,  when  they  make  their  constitutions 
and  pass  their  state  laws,  are  compelled  to  respect  the  terms 
of  the  national  constitution.  This  constitution,  therefore, 
imposes  restriction  on  both  the  national  government  and  the 
states. 

THE  EXPRESS  AND  IMPLIED  POWERS  OF  THE 
NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT.  The  constitution  of  the 
United  States  enumerates  in  detail  the  powers  which  the 
national  government  may  exercise.  We  have  already  learned 
in  general  what  these  powers  are.  When  Congress  wishes  to 
pass  a  law  on  any  subject,  it  must  first  of  all  find  its  authority 
to  do  so  in  the  constitution.  Otherwise  the  law  is  said  to  be 
"unconstitutional";  and  this  means  that  it  is  no  law  at  all. 
We  are  not  obliged  to  obey  those  laws  which,  under  the  con- 
stitution, Congress  has  no  power  to  enact.  It  must  not  be 
thought,  however,  that  each  of  us  can  determine  these  matters 
for  himself — that  we  may  obey  or  disobey  the  laws  of  Congress 
as  we  choose.     As  we  shall  see,  the  constitution  provides 


SUPREMACY  OF  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  169 

a  means  by  which  we  may  seek  the  protection  of  the  courts 
whenever  Congress  attempts  to  pass  an  "unconstitutional" 
law. 

It  is  highly  important  to  understand  that  the  national  gov- 
ernment has  certain  powers  which  are  not  in  so  many  words 
'aid  down  in  the  constitution.  The  powers  which  are  ex- 
pressly or  directly  given  to  the  national  government  by  the 
constitution  are  not  numerous.  Almost  from  the  beginning 
Congress  found  it  necessary  to  exercise  other  powers,  which  are 
only  indirectly  given,  or  as  we  say,  implied  in  the  constitu- 
tion. For  example,  the  constitution  has  nothing  directly 
to  say  about  the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  the  manu- 
facture of  foods.  As  we  have  seen,  however.  Congress  has 
exercised  this  power.  The  constitution  simply  gives  Congress 
the  power  to  regulate  interstate  commerce.  But  since  foods 
of  various  kinds  are  shipped  across  state  lines,  and  thus  be- 
come a  part  of  interstate  commerce,  the  power  of  Congress 
to  regulate  the  quality  of  these  foods  is  implied.  The  power 
to  enact  such  laws  as  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  and  the  Meat 
Inspection  Act  is,  therefore,  said  to  be  implied  in  the  power  to 
regulate  interstate  commerce.  This  is  only  a  single  illustra- 
tion of  how  the  national  government  exercises  powers  that  are 
not  expressly  given  to  it  by  the  constitution.  It  is  under 
this  authority  to  exercise  implied  powers  that  the  activities 
of  the  national  government  have  been  greatly  extended. 

THE  RESTRICTIONS  ON  THE  NA  TIONAL  GOVERN- 
MENT. While  it  is  important  to  understand  this,  it  is  of 
even  greater  importance  to  understand  that  the  national  gov- 
ernment cannot  exercise  powers  which  are  neither  expressly 
nor  impliedly  granted  to  it  by  the  constitution.  It  cannot, 
for  example,  regulate  matters  pertaining  to  our  public  school 
system;  for  the  national  constitution  does  not  grant  to  Con- 
gress any  power  which,  by  the  widest  stretch  of  the  imagina- 
tion, could  be  regarded  as  implying  the  power  to  control  school 
affairs.      In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  so-called  implied  powers 


170    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

of  the  national  government  are  numerous  and  important,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  there  are  many  important  powers  which 
Congress  may  not,  under  the  constitution,  exercise.  These 
are  left  to  the  states.  Our  review  of  the  activities  of  our  state 
and  local  governments  has  indicated  in  a  general  way  what 
powers  are  thus  reserved  from  control  by  Congress  and 
given  over  to  the  several  states. 

That  Congress  may  exercise  only  those  powers  that  are 
expressly  or  impliedly  granted  by  the  national  constitution 
is  the  most  important  restriction  that  is  placed  upon  the  na- 
tional government.  In  addition  to  this,  however,  a  number 
of  other  restrictions  are  placed  by  the  constitution  upon  the 
powers  of  the  central  government.  It  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary to  enumerate  the  entire  list  of  these  express  restrictions; 
it  is  sufficient  if  we  get  some  general  idea  of  their  character 
and  importance. 

As  the  constitution  came  from  the  hands  of  the  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  it  contained  a  number  of  express  prohibitions 
upon  the  powers  of  Congress.  For  example,  after  an  indi- 
vidual has  committed  an  act,  Congress  is  forbidden  to  pass 
any  law  providing  for  his  punishment.  Such  a  law  is  called 
an  ex  post  facto  law.  Congress  may  of  course  provide  for  the 
punishment  of  similar  acts  in  the  future.  It  is  not  fair  or 
just,  however,  that  a  person  should  be  punished  for  an  act 
which  was  not  an  offense  against  the  law  at  the  time  when  he 
committed  it.  When  a  person  is  arrested  for  an  offense 
against  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  he  cannot  be  kept  in 
prison  indefinitely  awaiting  his  trial.  The  national  govern- 
ment cannot  deny  him  the  privilege  of  being  taken  before 
some  officer  of  the  law  and  shown  the  reason  for  his  being 
held.  This  is  called  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 
The  United  States  go\crnment  is  also  forbidden  to  grant  any 
title  of  nobility,  like  the  titles  given  in  most  European  coun- 
tries.    Moreover,  as  we  shall  see  later,  very  important  re- 


SUPREMACY  OF  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  171 

strictions  are  placed  upon  the  powers  of  Congress  in  the  levy- 
ing of  taxes. 

It  is  in  the  first  ten  amendments,  however,  that  we  find 
most  of  the  prohibitions  upon  the  powers  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment. These  amendments,  as  we  have  learned,  were 
adopted  because  the  states  feared  that  the  government 
created  by  the  new  constitution  might  not  respect  the  liberties 
of  the  people.  Among  other  things  they  protect  our  freedom 
of  speech  and  the  press,  and  our  freedom  of  religion.  They 
provide  that  when  a  person  is  accused  of  crime  against  the 
laws  of  the  nation,  he  shall  be  indicted  by  a  grand  jury,  and 
shall  be  tried  by  a  jury  in  a  fair  and  open  court,  with  the  right 
to  have  his  witnesses  and  a  lawyer  to  defend  him.  They  pro- 
vide, too,  that  our  private  property  shall  not  be  taken  from 
us  by  the  national  government  without  just  compensation; 
and  that  civil  suits — that  is,  suits  over  property,  debts,  and 
the  like— in  which  the  amount  exceeds  twenty  dollars  shall 
also  be  tried  by  a  jury. 

These  are  not  all  the  restrictions  placed  upon  the  powers 
of  the  national  government;  but  they  are  sufficient  to  illus- 
trate how  the  national  constitution  protects  our  lives,  our 
liberties,  and  our  property  from  any  tyranny  on  the  part  of 
the  officers  of  the  national  government.  Similar  restrictions, 
as  we  have  learned,  are  placed  upon  the  powers  of  our  state 
government  by  the  constitution  of  the  state  of  Virginia. 
Thus  we  are  protected  in  our  life,  liberty,  and  property 
against  both  of  the  governments  to  which  we  owe  loyalty 
and  obedience. 

RESTRICTIONS  IMPOSED  ON  THE  STATES.  We 
have  just  seen  that  the  most  important  restriction  on  the 
national  government  is  that  it  may  exercise  only  those  powers 
that  are  expressly  or  impliedly  granted  by  the  national  con- 
stitution. So  likewise  the  most  important  restriction  upon 
the  powers  of  the  states  is  that  they  may  not  exercise  any  of 
the  powers  thus  given  to  the  government  of  the  nation.     In 


172    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

other  words,  powers  are  divided  between  the  two,  and  each  is 
restricted  to  its  own  si)here.  In  addition  to  this  general  re- 
striction on  the  states,  the  constitution  contains  a  few  other 
l)rohil)itions  upon  their  powers.  For  example,  when  legal 
agreements,  or  contracts  as  they  are  called,  ha\e  been  made  in 
any  state,  no  law  can  be  passed  by  that  state  to  render  these 
contracts  less  binding  upon  the  parties  who  have  made 
them.  The  states  also  are  forbidden  to  pass  any  ex  post 
facto  laws.  Nor  can  they  make  agreements  with  one  another, 
or  with  a  foreign  goxernment ;  nor  maintain  an  army  and  navy ; 
nor  grant  a  title  of  nobilit)-;  nor  coin  money;  nor  levy  duties 
on  imports. 

The  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  amendments 
also  impose  certain  restrictions  upon  the  powers  of  the 
states.  As  we  have  seen,  they  prohibit  the  states  from  re- 
establishing slavery,  and  from  depriving  any  person  of  the 
right  to  vote  because  of  his  "race,  color,  or  previous  conditon 
of  servitude."  The  fourteenth  amendment  declares  thatino 
state  shall  "deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  proper  y, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  tts 
jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws."  The  meaniing 
of  this  sweeping  declaration  has  never  been  fully  determined. 
As  has  been  noted,  it  was  intended  primarily  to  protect  the 
negro  race;  but  it  has  actually  been  used  much  more  fre- 
quently to  protect  corporations  and  others  within  the  states 
from  the  operation  of  certain  state  laws.  This  whole  ques- 
tion is  very  complicated;  it  belongs  more  properly  to  the 
study  of  law.  Any  attempt  to  explain  it  in  our  elementary 
study  of  government  would  only  serve  to  confuse  us. 

THE  GO  VERNMENT  OF  TERRITORIES  A  ND  OTHER 
POSSESSIONS.  The  entire  territory  of  what  is  known  as 
"Continental  United  States"  is  now  dixidcd  into  forty-eight 
states.  All  of  these,  except  the  original  thirteen  states,  have 
been  admitted  to  the  Union  at  various  times  by  acts  of  Con- 
gress.    There  are  parts  of  the  United  States,  however,  which 


SUPREMACY  OF  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  173 

are  not  organized  as  states.  There  are  the  territories  of 
Alaska  and  Hawaii,  and  there  are  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Porto  Rico,  and  a  few  other  islands  of  less  importance;  and 
there  is  the  District  of  Columbia.  These  territories  and 
possessions  occupy  in  our  system  of  government  a  place  en- 
tirely different  from  that  of  the  states.  They  do  not,  like  the 
states,  enjoy  any  powers  independent  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  constitution  gives  Congress  the  power  to  de- 
termine how  each  of  them  shall  be  governed.  Congress  has, 
indeed,  organized  the  territories  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii  on  a 
plan  similar  to  that  of  the  state  governments;  but  Congress 
has  the  power  to  change  this  plan  at  any  time— a  power 
which  it  could  not  exercise  over  any  state.  Congress  has  also 
pro\ided  by  law  special  governments  for  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippine  Islands. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Could  our  national  government  make  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the 
school  system  of  Virginia?  For  the  management  of  trolley  lines  in  Vir- 
ginia? For  the  regulation  of  the  sale  of  liquors  in  Virginia?  Could  it 
provide  fire  departments,  sewer  systems,  electric  lif  hts,  and  street  pave- 
ments for  our  cities?     By  whom  are  these  things  controlled?     Why? 

2.  Could  the  state  of  Virginia  maintain  an  army?  A  navy?  A  postal 
system?  Could  it  build  forts?  Make  treat'es?  Coin  money?  Issue 
paper  money?     By  whom  are  these  things  controlled?     Why? 

3.  Explain,  then,  what  we  mean  when  we  say  that  our  national  gov- 
ernment and  our  state  governments  are  indcpeialevt  of  each  other.  How 
is  this  independence  secured?  Who  made  the  division  of  powers  between 
the  states  and  the  national  government?  How  was  the  division  made? 
Are  the  states  and  the  national  government  inde]jendent  of  each  other  in 
the  same  way  that  Great  Britain  and  Italy  are  independent?  Explain 
the  difference. 

4.  Could  the  state  of  Virginia  exist  under  its  present  constitution  with- 
out the  national  government?  Why?  Could  the  national  government 
exist  without  the  states?  Why?  Explain,  then,  what  we  mean  when  we 
say  that  the  states  and  the  national  government  are  dependent  on  each 
other. 


174    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  exjjress  powers  of  the  national  government? 
The  imjiliocl  powers?  The  national  government  once  built  a  post-road 
tlirough  Maryland;  the  national  government  has  no  express  power  to  build 
roads;  how,  then,  could  the  government  build  this  post-road?  Under 
what  power  did  our  national  government  acquire  the  Philipj)ine  Islands? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  "reserved"  powers?  Who  exercises  these 
j)owers? 

7.  Can  our  national  government  restrict  our  liberty  in  any  way  that  it 
chooses?  How  is  it  prevented?  Can  it,  for  instance,  restrict  our  freedom 
of  speech?  Can  it  prescribe  what  church  you  shall  attend?  Or  make 
you  contribute  to  the  supjiort  of  some  church?     Whj-? 

8.  After  you  have  committed  some  act,  can  the  national  government 
pass  a  law  for  your  punishment?  Why?  Suppose  you  are  arrested  for 
some  offense  against  the  laws  of  the  nation,  can  you  be  kept  in  prison 
indefinitely  awaiting  your  trial?  At  your  trial  what  rifrhts  would  you 
have?  How  are  these  rights  secured  to  j'ou?  Why  were  the  first  ten 
amendments  to  the  constitution  passed? 

9.  Does  the  national  constitution  place  any  restrictions  on  the  powers 
of  the  states?     Mention  some  of  these  restrictions. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
CONGRESS 

REPRESENTATION  IN  CONGRESS.  The  national 
constitution,  which  was  adopted  in  1789,  provides  for  a  legis- 
lature composed  of  two  houses.  One  of  these  is  known  as  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  the  other  as  the  Senate.  In 
order  for  any  measure  to  become  a  law,  it  must  be  passed  by 
both  of  these  houses  of  Congress.  Thus  the  makers  of  our 
constitution  sought  to  prevent  laws  from  being  made  without 
due  care  and  deliberation. 

In  the  Congress  that  existed  during  the  period  of  Confedera- 
tion (1781-9),  each  state  was  entitled  to  cast  only  one  vote, 
without  regard  to  its  population  or  the  number  of  representa- 
tives that  it  had  in  Congress.  The  small  state  of  Delaware 
had,  therefore,  as  much  power  in  making  the  laws  of  the  nation 
as  Virginia,  which  was  then  the  largest  state  of  the  Union. 
At  the  time  of  the  framing  of  our  present  constitution,  the 
smaller  states  wished  to  continue  this  equal  representation  of 
the  states  in  Congress.  The  large  states,  however,  wanted 
to  be  represented  in  proportion  to  their  population,  for  this 
would  increase  their  power  in  the  national  legislature.  When 
it  was  decided  that  Congress  should  consist  of  two  houses, 
the  difficulty  was  readily  overcome.  The  large  states  were 
given  what  they  desired  in  one  house  and  the  small  states  in 
the  other.  It  was  provided  that  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives each  state  should  be  represented  according  to  its 
population.  In  the  Senate  each  state  was  given  the  same 
number  of  senators. 

THE  HO  USE  OF  REPRESENTA  TI VES.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  electing  congressmen — as  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  are  usually  called — each  state  is  divided  into 

175 


CONGRESS  177 

congressional  districts,  and  one  congressman  is  elected  by  the 
voters  of  each  district.  At  present  Virginia  has  a  population 
which  entitles  the  state  to  ten  congressmen.  There  are, 
therefore,  ten  congressional  districts  in  Virginia.  It  must  not 
be  supposed,  however,  simply  because  congressmen  are  elected 
by  districts,  that  they  represent  only  the  interests  of  their 
districts.  Unfortunately  this  is  too  often  the  case.  Every 
representative  should  act  solely  for  the  interests  of  the  entire 
nation. 

Provision  is  made  in  the  constitution  for  ascertaining  the 
number  of  people  in  each  state  by  taking  a  census  every  ten 
years.  After  each  new  census  Congress  has  to  determine 
how  many  representatives  each  state  is  to  have  in  accordance 
with  the  new  record  of  its  population.  This  is  called  "re- 
apportioning" the  representation  of  the  states.  At  this  time 
Some  states  are  given  additional  representatives  because  of 
their  large  increase  of  population  since  the  preceding  census. 
Moreover,  a  state  may,  in  the  reapportionment,  be  deprived 
of  one  or  more  of  its  representatives,  although  in  practice 
this  is  usually  avoided. 

At  present  each  congressman  is  elected  by  a  population  of 
about  200,000  people.  If,  however,  a  small  state  has  less 
than  this  population,  it  must  be  given  at  least  one  representa- 
tive. The  constitution  does  not  place  any  limit  upon  the 
size  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  At  present  it  numbers 
435  members. 

Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  chosen  every 
two  years  in  November  of  the  even-numbered  years  (1916, 
1918,  etc.).  Each  representative,  therefore,  serves  for  a 
term  of  two  years.  If  he  returns  to  Congress  for  another 
term,  he  must  be  re-elected  by  the  voters  of  his  district.  It 
is  a  fact  that  representatives  are  sometimes  re-elected  for 
many  terms. 

THE  SENATE.  In  the  United  States  Senate  each  state, 
without  regard  to  its  population,  is  entitled  to  two  senators. 


178    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  result  is  that  the  least  populous  state  of  the  Union, 
Nevada,  with  only  about  eighty  thousand  inhabitants,  has 
the  same  representation  in  the  Senate  as  New  York;  with  a 
population  of  more  than  nine  millions. 

We  have  already  noted  that  senators  were  formerly  chosen 
by  state  legislatures,  but  that,  since  the  adoption  in  1913  of 
the  seventeenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  they  are 
elected  by  a  direct  vote  of  the  people  of  the  several  states. 
A  senator  holds  his  seat  for  a  term  of  six  years.  Unlike  the 
House  of  Representatives,  the  entire  Senate  is  not  renewed 
at  the  end  of  the  senatorial  term.  Instead  of  the  whole 
number  of  senators  being  chosen  every  six  years,  one-third  of 
them  are  chosen  every  two  years.  By  this  means  it  is  im- 
possible for  more  than  a  third  of  the  Senate  to  consist  of  new 
members;  for  the  other  two-thirds  always  hold  their  posi- 
tions over  from  one  Congress  to  another.  Moreover,  many 
of  the  senators  are  re-elected  at  the  end  of  their  terms  of 
office.  The  Senate,  in  consequence,  consists  of  a  body  of 
men  most  of  whom  have  held  their  seats  for  a  long  period 
of  time.  This  gives  a  permanence  of  character  to  the  Senate 
which  the  House  of  Representatives  lacks  because  of  the 
many  changes  that  are  made  every  two  years. 

The  term  of  one  of  the  senators  from  Virginia  expires  in 
1917,  1923,  and  every  sixth  year  thereafter.  We  elect  a 
senator,  therefore,  at  the  regular  November  elections  in  1916, 
1922,  and  so  on.  The  term  of  our  other  senator  expires  in 
1919,  1925,  and  every  sixth  year  thereafter.  We  elect  a  sena- 
tor for  this  seat,  therefore,  in  November  of  1918,  1924,  and  so 
on.  As  we  have  already  noted,  each  state  determines  for  it- 
self who  may  vote  in  the  elections  of  congressmen  and  sena- 
tors. 

NOMINATION  OF  CANDIDATES  FOR  CONGRESS 
BY  POLITICAL  PARTIES.  Of  course  the  several  politi- 
cal parties  put  forward  candidates  for  congressmen  and 
senators  whenever  these  officers  are  about  to  be  elected. 


CONGRESS  179 

Each  party  seeks  to  secure  the  election  of  as  many  of  its 
candidates  as  possible.  If  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
House  and  the  Senate  belong  to  a  particular  party,  that  party 
is  then  in  a  position  to  enact  such  laws  and  carry  out  such 
policies  as  It  may  have  promised  to  the  voters.  As  we  shall 
see  a  little  later,  the  promises  of  each  party  are  set  forth  in 
what  is  known  as  the  national  party  platform.  These  plat- 
forms are  adopted  by  the  national  conventions  of  the  several 
parties,  which  meet  every  fourth  year,  in  the  summer  pre- 
ceding the  election  of  a  President. 

While  the  platform  of  each  party  is  made  by  a  convention 
of  delegates  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  candidates  for 
Congress  are  nominated  in  each  state  in  the  manner  that  is 
prescribed  by  the  laws  of  the  particular  state.  For  example, 
under  the  laws  of  Virginia,  each  party  decides  for  itself 
whether  its  candidates  shall  be  chosen  by  party  conventions 
or  shall  be  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  party  at  the  regular 
primary  elections,  which  are  held  every  year  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  August. 

THE  SESSIONS  OF  CONGRESS.  We  have  seen  that 
all  of  the  congressmen  and  one-third  of  the  senators  are  elected 
in  November  of  the  even-numbered  years  (1916,  1918,  1920, 
etc.).  The  persons  so  elected,  together  with  the  two-thirds 
of  the  senators  who  hold  over,  form  a  new  Congress.  In 
theory  the  life  of  this  new  Congress  begins  on  the  fourth  of 
March  follov.ing  these  biennial  November  elections  (March  4, 
1917,  1919,  1921,  etc.).  However,  unless  the  President  calls 
the  Congress  in  an  extra  and  earlier  session,  it  does  not  actually 
come  together  until  the  first  Monday  in  December  following 
— that  is,  about  thirteen  months  after  the  election  has  been 
held.  Congress  then  usually  continues  in  session  until  some 
time  during  the  following  summer.  This  first  session  of 
every  newly  elected  Congress  is  known  as  its  "long  session." 
In  November  following  this  long  session  the  time  arrives  for 
the  election  of  another  Congress.     In  December  following  this 


180    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IX  VIRGINIA 

election  the  old  (not  the  newly  elected)  Congress  comes  to- 
gether for  its  second  session.  This  is  called  its  "short  session," 
because  it  must  come  to  an  end  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  fol- 
lowing March,  when  the  two-year  life  of  the  Congress  expires. 
To  illustrate,  the  members  of  the  Sixl)-Fourth  Congress 
(except  two-thirds  of  the  senators,  whose  terms  had  not  ex- 
pired) were  elected  in  November,  1914.  The  life  of  this 
Congress  began  March  4,  1915.  It  assembled  for  the  first 
time  in  December,  1915.  It  adjourned  in  the  summer  of 
1916.  In  November,  1916,  the  members  of  the  Sixty-Fifth 
Congress  were  elected.  But  in  December,  1916,  the  Sixty- 
Fourth  Congress  came  together  for  its  short  session,  which 
came  to  an  end  on  March  4,  1917. 

There  are  of  course  many  disadvantages  about  this  arrange- 
ment. It  is  almost  absurd  to  think  that  a  congressman  w^ho 
has  perhaps  been  defeated  for  re-election  in  November 
should  nevertheless  return  to  Washington  and  assist  in  making 
the  laws  of  the  nation  for  a  period  of  scNcral  months  after 
his  defeat. 

THE  QUALIFICATIONS  OF  CONGRESSMEN  AND 
SENATORS.  The  constitution  recjuires  that  senators  and 
representatives  shall  be  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
residents  of  the  state  from  which  they  are  chosen.  Senators 
must  be  at  least  thirty  years  old  and  congressmen  at  least 
twenty-five  years  old.  Usually,  too,  a  congressman  must  re- 
side in  the  district  in  which  he  is  elected,  although  this  is  not 
required  by  the  constitution. 

In  general  only  men  of  intelligence  and  high  character  are 
chosen  to  be  members  of  the  national  Congress.  Nearly 
always  a  majority  of  them  are  lawyers  of  ability.  The  longer 
a  congressman  or  senator  holds  his  scat  in  Congress  the  more 
influential  he  becomes.  Ordinarily  a  representative  who 
holds  office  for  only  a  single  term  of  two  years  does  not  wield 
a  large  amount  of  influence  in  the  law-making  body  of  the 
ii.ition. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  CONGRESS.  Each  house 
of  Congress  has  ihc  power  to  <lctci mine  how  il.  .sh;ill  be  or- 


CONGRESS  181 

ganized  for  business,  and  whether  those  who  claim  to  be  mem- 
bers have  been  properly  chosen.  Each  house  elects  its  own 
officers,  with  the  single  exception  that  the  Vice-President  of 
the  Ignited  States  is  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate. 

The  House  of  Rcprescntati\es  chooses  for  its  presiding 
officer  one  of  its  own  members.  This  officer  is  called  the 
Speaker.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  national  constitution; 
but  owing  to  the  powers  which  have  been  given  him  by  the 
House,  the  Speaker  is  a  very  important  figure  in  the  national 
government.  He  is  usually  the  strongest  man  in  the  political 
party  which  has  elected  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
House.  He  has  many  important  powers  o^'er  the  conduct  of 
the  business  of  the  House.  In  recent  years,  however,  some 
of  the  Speaker's  powers  have  been  taken  away  from  him;  for 
it  was  felt  that  the  control  which  he  had  over  the  making  of 
the  laws  and  over  the  rights  of  individual  members  of  the 
House  was  far  greater  than  any  single  man  ought  to  enjoy. 
Even  though  they  have  been  somewhat  diminished,  the 
Speaker  still  has  very  large  powers.  Especially  is  this  seen 
when  his  pOAvers  are  contrasted  with  those  of  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, who  presides  o\'er  the  Senate. 

THE  COMMITTEES  OF  CONGRESS.  Everyone  who 
visits  the  House  of  Representatives  during  a  session  of  Con- 
gress is  impressed  by  the  general  disorder  that  usually  pre- 
vails. It  seems  almost  as  if  no  business  at  all  is  being  trans- 
acted. Many  of  the  members  are  absent  from  their  seats, 
and  those  who  are  present  are  often  reading  newspapers,  or 
walking  about,  or  conversing  with  one  another.  Usually 
some  member  is  speaking,  but  it  often  happens  that  scarcely 
anybody  is  listening  to  him.  It  is  only  upon  exceptional 
occasions  that  all  the  members  are  in  their  seats  giving  close 
attention  to  the  speeches  that  are  being  made.  Moreover, 
the  House  is  frequently  in  session  only  an  hour  or  so  during 
the  entire  day.  How  is  it  that  so  many  important  m.easures 
can  be  passed  by  this  House  under  such  circumstances?     It  is 


182    GoVKKNiMKN  r  AND  i^ULi  llCS  IN  \  IRGliNlA 

because  the  real  business  of  the  House  is  being  carried  on  in 
the  committee  rooms. 

When  a  new  Congress  comes  together,  and  the  Speaker  and 
other  officers  have  been  chosen,  the  first  business  of  each  house 
is  to  elect  a  large  number  of  standing  committees.     Each  of 
these  committees  has  for  its  consideration  measures  that  re- 
late to  one  particular  branch  of  the  national  go\ernment's 
work.     Every  congressman  and  every  senator  is  eager  to  be 
chosen  as  a  member  of  one  or  more  important  committees; 
for  it  is  in  the  committee  room  that  a  congressman  or  a  senator 
does  his  real  work  and  becomes  a  power  in  making  the  laws 
of  the  nation.     In  each  house  the  chairman  and  a  majority 
of  each  committee  belong  to  the  political  party  which  at  the 
time  has  a  majority  of  members  in  the  house. 
'      THE  MAKING  OF  A  LA  W.     At  every  session  of  Congress 
an  enormous  numl)er  of  measures  are  introduced  in  each 
house.     Not  one  in  ten  of  these  measures  is  enacted  into  law. 
Every  member  is  permitted  to  introduce  any  measure  that 
he  chooses;  but  if  every  member  could  compel  the  house  to 
consider  his  proposal  immediately,  almost  nothing  would  be 
accomplished.  Hence  the  committee  system  has  been  adopted. 
When  a  measure  is  introduced  by  any  member,  it  is  referred 
at  once  to  an  appropriate  committee.     The  committee  con- 
siders the  proposition  carefully  and  perhaps  revises  it.     It 
may  conduct  a  hearing,  so  that  those  who  are  in  favor  of,  or 
opposed  to,  the  measure  may  have  the  chance  to  give  their 
opinion  and  advice.     Later  the  committee  may  report  the 
measure  to  the  house  and  advise  that  it  be  enacted  or  rejected. 
Many  proposals  the  committees  simply  ignore.     They  do  not 
report  them  at  all,  but  allow  them  to  "die"  in  the  committee 
room.     Important  bills,  after  they  have  been  reported  by  a 
committee,  are  discussed  in  the  house,  and  frequently  they 
are  amended  before  they  are  passed.     Sometimes,  however, 
the  house  relies  largely  upon  the  report  of  the  committee  and 
passes  or  rejects  the  bill  according  to  its  recommendation. 


CONGRESS  183 

This  method  of  handUng  the  business  of  Congress  by  means 
of  committees  makes  it  possible  for  a  large  number  of  bills  to 
be  considered.  More  than  two  thousand  laws  have  sometimes 
been  passed  by  a  single  Congress,  and  many  times  that  num- 
ber of  measures  are  proposed  and  referred  to  the  various  com- 
mittees. When  any  bill  has  passed  through  one  house  of 
Congress,  it  must  go  through  a  similar  process  in  the  other 
house,  and  later,  as  we  shall  see,  it  must  be  submitted  to  the 
President  for  his  approval  or  veto. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Find  out  the  number  of  the  congressional  district  of  Virginia  In 
which  30U  live.  How  many  people  live  in  this  district?  Find  out  the 
name  of  the  present  congressman  from  your  district.  When  was  he 
elected?  How  many  terms  has  he  served?  When  will  the  next  congres- 
sional election  be  held?  Will  your  congressman  be  elected  at  the  same 
time  that  congressmen  will  be  chosen  in  other  districts  of  Virginia  and  in 
the  other  states  of  the  Union? 

2.  How  many  congressmen  has  Virginia?  Explain  why  Virginia  hag 
this  number,  while  New  York,  for  instance,  has  many  more,  and  Delaware 
many  less.  Who  determines  the  number  of  congressmen  that  each  state 
shall  have?  How  often  is  this  matter  determined?  When  will  the  next 
reapportionment  take  place? 

3.  How  many  senators  has  Virginia?  How  many  have  the  other 
states?  Find  out  the  names  of  the  present  senators  from  Virginia.  How 
long  has  each  of  them  served?  How  were  they  chosen?  When?  How 
long  has  each  of  them  yet  to  serve?  When  will  the  people  of  Virginia 
choose  another  senator?     Will  one  or  two  be  chosen  at  this  time?     Why? 

4.  How  many  members  has  the  Senate?  Why?  How  long  is  their 
term  of  office?  Are  all  of  them  chosen  at  the  same  time?  Explain,  then, 
how  the  Senate  is  only  partly  renewed  from  one  Congress  to  another. 
What  advantage  has  this?  How  were  senators  formerly  chosen?  Why 
was  this  system  abolished?     How  was  it  aboUshed? 

5.  What  advantage  is  there  in  having  two  houses  of  Congress?  Ex- 
plain how  the  people  are  represented  on  a  different  basis  in  each  house. 
Why  was  this  plan  adopted? 

6.  Explain  how  candidates  for  the  two  houses  of  Congress  are  nomi- 
nated by  political  parties  in  Virginia. 

7.  How  long  does  each  Congress  exist?  How  many  regular  sessions 
does  each  Congress  hold?     When  do  the  sessions  begin  and  how  long  do 


184    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

lliey  last?  What  is  meant  by  tlie  "lon^"  and  tlu>,  "sliort"  session  of  Con- 
j2;ress?  Kxjilain  how  the  members  cf  one  Con^jress  are  elected  before  the 
short  session  of  the  preceding  Congress  is  lidd.  \\  hat  disadvantage  has 
this? 

8.  Is  Congress  in  session  at  present?  If  not,  wiicn  will  it  assemble? 
Will  this  be  for  the  long  or  the  short  session?     How  do  you  know? 

9.  What  qualifications  are  required  of  congressmen  and  senators? 

10.  Who  presides  over  the  Senate?  Over  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives? ^^■hat  power  has  the  Speaker?  How  is  he  chosen?  Who  is  the 
present  Speaker  of  the  House?  Who  is  the  present  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States? 

11.  Why  was  the  committee  system  adopted  in  Congress?  How  are 
the  committees  chosen  in  each  house?  Explain  how  every  measure  must 
pass  through  either  house  of  Congress.  Exjilain  in  full,  then,  how  every 
law  is  made.     What  advantages  has  this  system? 

12.  Where  does  Congress  meet?  Have  you  ever  seen  the  Capitol? 
Describe  it.  Have  you  ever  attended  a  session  of  either  house  of  Con- 
gress? Tell  the  class  what  you  saw.  Describe  the  Hall  of  the  House  of 
Representatives. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS 

THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NA- 
TIONAL GO  VERNMENT.  The  constitution  does  not  con- 
fer upon  state  officers  the  power  to  put  the  laws  of  the  nation 
into  operation.  It  provides  that  the  national  laws  shall  be 
executed  exclusively  by  national  officers,  with  the  President 
of  the  United  States  at  their  head.  Congress  has  provided 
by  law  what  officers,  in  addition  to  the  President,  are  neces- 
sary for  carrying  out  the  laws.  These  officers  constitute  the 
executive  department  of  the  national  government. 

THE  ELECTION  OF  THE  PRESIDENT.  When  the 
voters  of  the  several  states  go  to  the  polls  to  elect  a  President 
and  a  Vice-President,  they  do  not  vote  directly  for  the  candi- 
dates for  these  offices.  They  cast  their  votes  for  a  number  of 
officers  known  as  presidential  electors.  The  constitution 
provides  that  each  state  may  choose  as  many  presidential 
electors  as  it  has  representatives  and  senators  in  Congress. 
The  whole  number  of  electors  in  any  state  is  known  as  its 
electoral  college.  Under  this  system  the  voters  of  Virginia 
elect  at  each  presidential  election  twelve  presidential  electors ; 
for,  as  we  have  seen,  Virginia  has  in  Congress  ten  representa- 
tives and  two  senators. 

In  each  state  the  proper  number  of  electors  are  chosen  at 
the  polls  in  November  of  every  fourth  year  (1916,  1920,  etc.). 
In  each  state  these  electors  come  together  the  following 
January  to  vote  for  a  President  and  a  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States.  They  send  the  result  of  their  vote  to  Wash- 
ington, where  the  votes  of  the  electors  in  all  the  states  are 
counted.  The  original  idea  was  that  the  presidential  electors 
chosen  in  the  several  states  would  be  men  of  greater  ability 

185 


186    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

than  the  average  voter,  and  that  they  would  be  better  able, 
therefore,  to  choose  a  suitable  President  and  Vice-President. 
As  a  result  of  the  control  which  political  parties  have  over 
these  elections,  the  electoral  colleges  were  at  a  very  early  date 
deprived  of  this  important  power. 

As  we  shall  see  in  a  moment,  each  of  the  ])olitical  parties 
nominates  one  candidate  for  President  and  another  for  Vice- 
President.  Either  by  a  party  convention  or  at  a  direct  pri- 
mary election  the  proper  number  of  presidential  electors  are 
nominated  by  each  party  in  each  state.  When  the  voters  go 
to  the  polls,  they  are  given  ballots  which  contain  the  list  of 
the  electors  that  are  nominated  in  this  fashion  by  each  of 
the  parties,  and  the  voters  cast  their  ballots  for  the  electoral 
candidates  of  one  or  another  party.  The  electors  that  are 
chosen  have  in  fact  no  independence  at  all.  They  must, 
upon  being  elected,  vote  for  the  candidates  for  President  and 
Vice-President  that  their  party  has  previously  nominated. 
No  elector  would  dare  vote  for  any  other.  While  the 
voters  still  continue  to  vote  at  the  polls  not  directly  for 
President  and  Vice-President  but  for  presidential  electors, 
this  has  become  a  mere  form.  They  actually  vote  for  the 
candidates  of  their  party;  for  when  the  electors  of  a  par- 
ticular party  are  victorious  at  the  polls  in  any  state,  these 
electors  cannot,  when  they  meet  in  the  electoral  college  of 
their  state,  cast  their  votes  for  any  other  than  the  candi- 
dates of  their  party.  So  litde  part  do  the  electors  actually 
have  in  choosing  the  President  and  the  Vice-President  that 
the  average  voter  scarcely  knows  or  cares  who  they  are. 

When  the  votes  of  the  electors  are  counted  at  Washington, 
each  state  is  counted  as  having  one  vote  for  each  elector  to 
which  it  is  entitled.  The  entire  electoral  vote  of  any  one  state 
is,  however,  usually  cast  for  the  candidate  of  one  political 
party,  even  though  the  parties  in  the  state  are  divided  nearly 
evenly.  For  example,  if  the  Democratic  party  in  Virginia 
has  only  a  small  majority  of  voters  over  the  Republican  party. 


..*|iir^^^, 


(Copyright,  Underwood  <S  Underwood) 
THE  PRESIDENT  READING  HIS  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS   ON  THE   STEPS 

OF  THE  CAPITOL 


188    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  Democratic  electors  will  be  chosen  at  the  polls  instead  of 
the  Republican  electors.  These  electors  will  cast  all  of  Vir- 
ginia's twelve  electoral  votes  for  the  Democratic  candidates 
for  President  and  Vice-President. 

The  whole  number  of  electoral  votes  is  531,  for  there  are 
in  Congress  96  senators  and  435  representatives.  It  requires 
a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  to  elect  a  President  or  a 
Vice-President.  Otherwise,  the  House  of  Representatives 
chooses  the  President,  and  the  Senate  chooses  the  Vice- 
President. 

NOMINATION  OF  CANDIDATES  FOR  PRESIDENT 
BY  POLITICAL  PARTIES.  Party  candidates  for  Presi- 
dent and  for  Vice-President  are  nominated  by  each  of  the 
political  parties  at  its  national  convention.  These  conven- 
tions consist  of  delegates  chosen  in  the  several  states  either 
by  party  conventions  or  at  direct  primary  elections.  They 
meet  usually  in  June  preceding  the  November  elections  at 
which  presidential  electors  are  chosen.  Each  convention, 
consisting  of  about  1,000  members,  assembles  in  some 
enormous  hall  in  one  of  our  large  cities. 

All  of  the  arrangements  for  the  meeting  of  these  conven- 
tions are  made  by  what  is  known  as  the  national  committee 
of  each  party.  This  committee,  consisting  of  one  member 
from  each  state,  has  general  control  over  the  affairs  of  the 
party. 

THE  PLATFORM  AND  THE  CAMPAIGN.  In  addi- 
tion to  choosing  the  party  candidates  for  President  and  Vice- 
President,  the  national  convention  draws  up  what  is  known  as 
the  platform  of  the  party.  This  platform  is  a  statement  of 
the  views  of  the  party  on  important  questions  in  which  the 
people  are  interested.  It  declares  what  the  candidates  of  the 
])arty  will  and  will  not  do  if  they  are  elected.  Unfortunately 
these  platforms  sometimes  contain  promises  that  are  intended 
only  to  attract  voters  for  the  party  candidates.  When  the 
election  is  o\er,  those  who  have  been  chosen  to  office  do  not 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       189 

always  seek  to  carry  out  the  promises  which  their  party  made 
in  its  platform. 

The  party  platform  is  published  in  the  newspapers  through- 
out the  land.  It  is  freely  discussed  in  the  speeches  that  are 
made  during  the  campaign,  as  the  period  preceding  the  elec- 
tion is  called.  Each  party  explains  and  upholds  its  own  plat- 
form, while  it  opposes  and  denounces  the  platform  of  the 
other  party.  The  entire  campaign,  which  lasts  up  to  the  time 
of  the  November  elections,  is  managed  by  the  national  party 
committee. 

THE  PRESIDENTS  POWERS.  The  President  of  the 
United  States  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  which  term 
begins  on  the  fourth  of  March  following  the  election  of  the 
electors  in  November.  Many  of  our  Presidents  have  been  re- 
elected for  a  second  term,  but  it  is  now  a  fairly  established 
custom  that  no  President  will  be  re-elected  for  a  third  term. 
The  constitution  and  the  laws  of  Congress  grant  many  im- 
portant powers  to  the  President  and  impose  upon  him  many 
important  duties. 

In  the  first  place,  the  President  plays  an  important  role  in 
the  making  of  the  laws  of  the  nation.  At  the  opening  of  each 
session  of  Congress,  he  sends  to  the  national  legislature  a 
message  in  which  he  discusses  the  condition  of  the  country 
and  recommends  the  passing  of  certain  laws.  In  1913  Presi- 
dent Wilson  adopted  the  plan  of  reading  his  message  to  Con- 
gress in  person.  This  was  a  plan  which  no  President  had 
followed  since  the  administration  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 
Sometimes  during  the  session  the  President  sends  (or  reads) 
further  messages  to  Congress,  and  at  all  times  he  keeps  closely 
in  touch  with  the  leaders  of  the  House  and  the  Senate,  con- 
sulting and  advising  with  them  as  to  the  framing  of  bills. 

When  a  bill  has  finally  passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  it 
must  be  sent  to  the  President  for  his  signature.  The  constitu- 
tion gives  him  ten  days  in  which  to  consider  the  bill.  If  at 
the  end  of  that  time  he  has  taken  no  action,  the  measure 


190    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

becomes  a  law  \\  ithout  his  signature.  Before  the  expiration 
of  these  ten  days,  however,  the  President  may  veto  the  bill 
and  return  it  to  Congress  with  his  reasons  for  refusing  to 
approve  it.  If  Congress  passes  the  bill  again  by  a  majority 
vote  of  two-thirds  in  each  house,  the  measure  becomes  a 
law  in  spite  of  the  President's  disapproval.  It  is  usually 
very  difficult,  however,  to  secure  the  two-thirds  vote  neces- 
sary to  "override"  the  President's  veto.     If,  after  a  bill  has 


A  NEW  YEAR'S  RECEPTION  AT  THE  WHITE  HOUSE 

Showing  thousands  of  persons  in  line  entering  the  White  House  on  the  occasion 

of  the  President's  public  reception  held  on  New  Year's  Day.     The  large 

building  in  the  foreground  is  occupied  by  the  State,  War  and 

Navy  Departments 


been  presented  to  the  President,  Congress  adjourns  before  the 
expiration  of  ten  days,  the  bill  does  not  become  a  law  without 
the  President's  signature.  This  is  known  as  the  "pocket 
veto." 

When  Congress  is  not  in  regular  session  at  Washington, 
the  President  is  sometimes  convinced  that  measures  of  im- 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       191 

portance  should  be  immediately  enacted  into  laws.  At  such 
times  he  has  authority  to  call  a  special  session  of  the  national 
legislature. 

The  power  of  the  President  to  send,  or  read,  messages  to 
Congress,  to  veto  bills,  and  to  call  extra  sessions  of  Congress 
may  not  seem  to  give  him  much  control  over  the  enactment  of 
laws.  In  fact,  however,  his  influence  in  the  making  of  the 
laws  is  very  great.  He  is  chosen  to  be  head  of  the  branch  of 
the  government  which  merely  executes  the  laws  that  Congress 
makes.  But  the  fact  is  that  he  is  usually  elected  because  he 
and  his  party  promise  that  certain  laws  will  be  enacted ;  and 
after  his  election  the  people  of  the  country  expect  him  to  see 
that  these  promises  are  fulfilled. 

In  the  second  place,  the  President  is  in  large  part  responsible 
for  the  proper  enforcement  of  national  laws,  because  he  has 
the  power  to  appoint  so  many  of  the  officers  who  are  charged 
with  this  duty.  He  and  the  Vice-President  are  the  only 
national  officers  who  are  elected.  All  of  the  other  officers 
who  execute  national  laws  are  appointed.  The  most  import- 
ant of  these,  such  for  instance  as  the  heads  of  departments, 
ambassadors  and  ministers,  the  chiefs  of  bureaus  in  charge  of 
important  services,  and  many  officers  who  serve  in  various 
localities,  such  as  postmasters,  district  attorneys,  and  customs 
and  internal  revenue  collectors,  are  nominated  by  the  Presi- 
dent and  approved  by  a  vote  of  the  Senate.  In  addition  to 
these,  a  vast  number  of  less  important  officers  and  employes 
are  appointed  after  competitive  examinations  are  held  under 
the  direction  of  a  board  known  as  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission. 

In  nominating  many  of  these  important  officers  the  Presi- 
dent cannot  always  act  with  independence.  He  is  influenced 
and  controlled  largely  by  the  wishes  of  senators  and  congress- 
men. Especially  is  this  true  in  the  appointment  of  such 
officers  as  district  attorneys,  postmasters,  and  customs  and 
internal  revenue  officers,  who  serve  at  posts  throughout  the 


192    GCA'KRNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

entire  United  States.  Senat(Hs  and  congressmen  usually 
have  great  influence  with  the  President  in  such  appointments. 
The  President  must  see  that  the  laws  of  the  nation  are  faith- 
fully executed.  It  is  his  duty,  therefore,  to  see  that  the  other 
executive  officers  are  properly  performing  their  work.  This 
would  be  impossible  unless  the  President  had  the  power  to 
remove  from  office  those  who  were  inefficient,  or  who  refused 


(Cojiyrxght,   I'lidfrwuiid  A    I ' n  Irnnidil) 

THE  PRESIDENT'S  OFFICE  BUILDING 
The  White  House,  connected  with  the  executive  offices  by  an  esplanade,  is  seen 

in  the  background 

to  carry  out  the  law  or  his  orders.  Witii  the  excei)tion  of  a 
])eriod  of  about  twenty  years  in  our  history,  the  President  has 
always  exercised  the  important  power  of  removing  officers. 
Officers  are  removed  by  the  President  not  only  to  secure 
better  service  in  the  government  1)ut  sometimes  also  in  the 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       193 

interest  of  party  politics.  Whenever  a  new  President  is 
elected  by  a  party  which  has  been  out  of  power,  it  is  usual  for 
a  number  of  the  more  important  officers  either  to  resign  or  to 
be  removed  from  office  by  the  President.  Their  places  are 
then  filled  by  members  of  the  political  party  which  has  come 
into  control  of  the  government. 

In  the  third  place,  the  President  is  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment for  the  management  of  foreign  affairs.  He  has  the 
power,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  appoint  those 
diplomatic  officers  who  are  sent  to  represent  us  in  foreign 
countries.  It  is  he,  also,  who  receives  the  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives who  are  sent  by  other  nations  to  the  United  States. 
As  we  have  already  seen  also,  he  has  the  power  to  draw  up 
treaties  with  foreign  nations,  although  these  must  afterwards 
be  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate.  The  Presi- 
dent is  thus  the  most  important  officer  of  the  nation  in  the 
conduct  of  our  relations  with  foreign  nations. 

In  the  fourth  place,  the  President  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy.  This  gives  him  large  control  over  the 
appointment  of  army  and  navy  officers  and  over  the  move- 
ments of  our  land  forces  and  vessels  of  war.  Congress  has 
given  him  the  power  to  call  out  the  state  militia  in  time  of 
public  danger,  and  the  constitution  places  him  also  at  the 
head  of  these  forces  when  they  are  called  into  the  service  of 
the  nation. 

In  the  fifth  place,  the  President  has  power  to  pardon  those 
who  have  committed  offenses  against  the  laws  of  the  United 
States.  This  power  is  given  to  the  President  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  Governor  of  our  state  is  given  the  power  to 
pardon  those  who  have  committed  offenses  against  the  laws 
of  Virginia. 

THE  COMMANDING  POSITION  OF  THE  PRESI- 
DENT. This  brief  enumeration  of  the  President's  powers 
gives  a  very  faint  conception  of  the  great  importance  of  his 
office.     Many  of  his  powers  are  similar  to  the  powers  that 


194    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

are  exercised  in  Virginia  by  the  Governor.  The  President, 
h()\ve\er,  exercises  his  powers  ox'er  the  whole  United  States, 
and  the  laws  which  he  assists  in  making,  and  which  he  and 
his  appointees  execute,  are  the  laws  of  the  entire  nation. 
Moreover,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  powers  that  every 
Governor  exercises  within  his  state,  the  President  has  a  large 
control  over  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  nation  and  over  the 
army  and  navy.  He  also  has  a  much  larger  power  over  the 
appointment  and  removal  of  the  executive  officers  of  the 
nation  than  the  Governor  has  over  the  appointment  and  re- 
moval of  state  officers.  He  occupies,  therefore,  a  more  im- 
portant position  in  the  government  of  the  nation  than  the 
Governor  in  the  government  of  the  state.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  he  is  the  most  commanding  and  powerful  officer  in  the 
United  States.  He  is  directly  responsible  to  the  people  who 
placed  him  in  office  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 

The  constitution  requires  that  the  President  shall  be  a 
natural  born  citizen  of  the  United  States — thus  excluding 
naturalized  citizens.  He  must  be  at  least  thirty-five  years 
old  and  must  ha\e  resided  in  the  United  States  for  fourteen 
years  preceding  his  election. 

THE  VICE-PRESIDENT.  In  case  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent becomes  vacant  for  any  cause,  he  is  succeeded  by  the 
Vice-President,  an  officer  who  is  elected  at  the  same  time  and 
for  the  same  term  as  the  President.  In  case  both  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Vice-President  are  unable  to  fill  the  office.  Con- 
gress has  provided  by  law  that  the  heads  of  the  several  execu- 
tive departments  shall  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  following  order: 
The  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Secretary  of  War,  the  Attorney  General,  the  Postmaster 
General,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior.  Five  Presidents  of  the  United  States  have  died  in 
office  and  have  been  succeeded  by  Vice-Presidents. 

THE  CABINET.  Of  course  the  President  does  not  per- 
sonally execute  many  of  the  laws  of  the  nation.      For  this  work 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       195 

Congrrss  has  created  a  vast  admiiiistrative  organization, 
Avhich  consists  of  ten  great  departments  and  scxeral  ini])ortant 
commissions  or  boards.  Each  of  the  ten  departments  has 
an  officer  at  its  head  who  is  called  either  a  "secretary"  or  a 
"general."  These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  President, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  they  act  as  advisers  to 
the  President  in  all  important  matters.  He  not  only  consults 
them  individually,  but  he  also  brings  them  together  once  or 
twice  a  week.  When  they  come  together  these  heads  of  de- 
partments constitute  what  is  known  as  the  President's  Cabi- 
net. The  President  is  not  compelled  to  act  upon  the  advice 
of  the  Cabinet,  but  this  organization  is  nevertheless  of  great 
assistance  to  him. 

THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS.  The  central 
offices  of  the  ten  great  departments  are  located  in  W^ashing- 
ton,  where  thousands  of  officers,  clerks,  and  employes  are 
engaged  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  government.  For 
convenience  these  departments  are  organized  into  bureaus 
or  divisions,  each  in  charge  of  a  chief  officer  who  is  usually 
appointed  by  the  President  and  the  Senate.  It  must  not 
be  thought,  however,  that  the  work  of  the  national  govern- 
ment is  performed  entirely  in  W^ashington.  Practically  all  of 
the  departments  have  numerous  officers  and  employes  who 
carry  on  the  work  of  the  government  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. These  scattered  officers  are  subject  to  the  control  and 
direction  of  the  departments  at  the  national  capital. 

THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT.  Headed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State,  this  department  attends  to  all  the  details  of  our 
foreign  affairs.  It  gives  instructions  to  our  diplomatic 
representatives  abroad  and  superintends  all  our  relations  with 
foreign  governments. 

THE  TREASURY  DEPARTMENT.  Headed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  this  department  manages  the 
financial  affairs  of  the  nation,  collects  its  revenues,  controls 


196    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  mints  and  the  national  hanks,  and  pays  out  such  money 
as  is  authorized  by  Congress. 

THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT.  Hc'a<k-d  by  the  Secretary 
of  War,  this  department  provides  for  the  recruiting,  equip- 
ment, and  management  of  the  army.  It  controls  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  New  York,  where 
young  men  are  trained  for  service  as  officers  in  the  army. 
The  improvement  of  our  ri\ers  and  harbors  is  also  under- 
taken by  the  engineers  of  this  department. 


lin:  UNITED  SIATES    rREASURY  BUILDING 


THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT.  Headed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  this  department  provides  for  the  navy  in 
the  same  way  that  the  War  department  provides  for  the  army. 
It  controls  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis, 
Maryland,  where  young  men  are  trained  to  be  officers  of 
the  navy. 

THE  POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT.  Headed  by  the 
Postmaster  General,  this  department  has  the  entire  manage- 
ment of  the  United  States  postal  service. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE.  Headed  by  the 
Attorney  General  of  the  United  States,  this  department  gives 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       197 

advice  on  questions  of  the  law  to  the  President  and  the 
other  executive  officers  of  the  nation.  When  the  United 
States  government  sues  or  is  sued  in  the  courts,  the  national 
government  is  represented  by  the  Attorney  General  or  by 
one  of  the  United  States  district  attorneys,  who  are  under  h^ 
control. 

THE  INTERIOR  DEPARTMENT.  Headed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  this  department  has  control  over  a 
number  of  matters  relating  to  the  affairs  within  the  country, 
such  as  Indian  affairs,  public  lands,  pensions,  and  patents. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE.  Headed 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  this  department  collects  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  agricultural  conditions  of  the 
country,  the  improvement  of  roads,  and  similar  matters.  As 
we  have  seen,  the  department  has  no  control  over  these  things. 
It  is  established  merely  to  advise  and  assist  those  who  desire 
information.  It  has  control  also  over  the  weather  bureau, 
the  government  forest  reserves,  and  the  enforcement  of  the 
Food  and  Drugs  Act  and  the  Meat  Inspection  Act. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE.  Headed  by 
the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  this  department  promotes  the 
commercial  interests  of  the  country  by  gathering  and  fur- 
nishing information — especially  information  concerning  oppor- 
tunities for  American  trade  in  foreign  countries.  This  de- 
partment also  manages  most  of  those  services  which  regulate 
and  assist  navigation. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR.  Headed  by  the 
Secretary  of  Labor,  this  department  makes  investigations 
and  collects  information  that  is  of  interest  in  connection  with 
the  improvement  of  the  conditions  of  the  laboring  classes  in 
the  United  States.  It  maintains  a  special  bureau  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  children  who  work  in  industry.  It  also 
supervises  and  enforces  the  immigration  and  naturalization 
laws. 


108    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRC.INIA 

THE  INDEPENDENT  COMMISSIONS.  In  addition 
to  these  ten  larj^e  departments,  there  are  in  the  national 
executive  organization  a  few  important  commissions  which  are 
iiidependent  of  any  department.  The  Interstate  Commerce 
C'ommission,  consisting?  of  seven  commissioners,  controls 
and  regulates  the  interstate  business  of  railway,  telegraph, 
telephone,  car,  and  express  companies.  The  F^ederal  Trade 
Commission,  consisting  of  five  commissioners,  regulates  the 
business  of  companies  that  ship  goods  in  interstate  commerce 
in  order  to  prevent  these  companies  from  being  unfair  in 
their  business  methods.  The  Civil  Service  Commission,  con- 
sisting of  three  commissioners,  conducts  examinations  in 
all  parts  of  the  country  for  those  who  desire  to  secure  positions 
in  the  service  of  the  national  government.  The  Federal 
Reserve  Board,  with  seven  members,  supervises  and  controls 
the  business  of  the  twelve  federal  reserve  banks 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Do  the  officers  of  our  state  government  execute  the  national  laws 
in  Virginia?  If  not,  how  are  the  national  laws  enforced?  Explain  why 
the  national  executive  officers  ure  necessary. 

2.  Who  is  now  President  of  the  United  States?  When  was  he  elected? 
When  d'd  he  take  office?  How  long  has  he  yet  to  serve?  May  he  be  re- 
elected at  the  end  of  his  present  term  of  office? 

3.  ^^'hat  is  meant  by  presidential  electors?  How  are  they  nomi- 
nated? How  are  they  elected?  What  is  their  duty?  Do  you  know  of 
any  one  who  has  ever  been  a  presidential  elector?  Why  do  we  take  so 
little  interest  in  the  choice  of  presidential  electors?  Explain  fully  the 
original  idea  of  the  electoral  college.  Have  the  electors  any  independent 
choice  in  casting  their  vote  for  Pr(?sident  and  Vice-President?  Ex])lain 
how,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  cast  our  vote  at  the  polls  for  presidential 
electors,  we  in  reality  vote  for  one  of  the  candidates  for  President. 

4.  How  many  electoral  votes  has  Virginia?  Why?  Explain  how  the 
entire  electoral  vote  of  Virginia  may  be  cast  for  the  Democratic  candidate 
even  though  only  a  small  majority  of  the  voters  in  the  state  may  vote  for 
the  presidential  candidate  of  this  party. 

/).  Explain  how  party  candidates  for  the  presidency  are  nominated  by 
political  parties.  What  is  the  platform?  Who  draws  it  up,  and  where? 
What  is  meant  I)y  the  campaign? 


THE  EXECUTION  OF  NATIONAL  LAWS       199 

6.  Why  is  the  President  required  to  send  messages  to  Congress? 
What  is  meant  by  his  veto?  How  may  it  be  "over-ridden"?  When  may 
the  President  call  a  special  session  of  Congress?  Does  the  President  have 
any  influence  in  the  making  of  our  national  laws? 

7.  What  officers  of  the  national  government  are  elected  by  the  people? 
How  are  the  other  important  officers  chosen- — the  heads  of  departments, 
for  instance,  the  ambassadors  and  ministers,  the  judges,  the  postmasters? 
How  are  most  of  the  less  important  officers  chosen?  Suppose  the  Presi- 
dent wishes  to  nominate  the  postmaster  In  your  community,  how  would 
he  probably  get  the  names  of  suitable  candidates  for  this  position?  How 
would  the  appointment  be  made?  How  is  the  President  influenced  in  the 
nominations  which  he  makes  to  the  Senate? 

8.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  the  President  should  have  the  power  to 
remove  cabinet  and  other  officers?  What  share  does  the  President  have 
in  making  our  treaties  with  foreign  countries?  What  is  his  position  in 
the  army  and  navy? 

9.  Who  may  be  chosen  President  of  the  United  States?  In  case  of 
the  President's  death,  who  succeeds  him?  In  case  of  his  successor's  death, 
who  would  become  President? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  President's  cabinet?  What  are  the  names  of 
some  of  the  present  cabinet  officers?  Who  appointed  them?  Who  may 
remove  them? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  the  executive  departments?  How  many  de- 
partments are  there?  Give  the  name  of  each  of  these  departments  and 
some  idea  of  its  business.  What  important  independent  commissions 
are  there? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE  NATIONAL  COURTS 

THE  NECESSITY  FOR  NATIONAL  COURTS.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  the  difficulties  that  would  arise  if  the 
courts  of  the  various  states  of  the  Union  were  given  the  sole 
power  to  explain  and  apply  the  laws  of  the  nation.  Courts 
in  different  states  would  explain  the  national  laws  quite 
differently.  They  might  even  be  unfriendly  to  the  laws  passed 
by  Congress  and  might  refuse  to  enforce  them.  In  order  to 
avoid  this  confusion  and  weakness,  the  constitution  provides 
for  a  system  of  national  courts  which  are  wholly  independent 
of  the  state  courts.  These  courts  constitute  the  judicial 
department  of  the  national  go\crnment. 

The  constitution  says  that  there  shall  be  one  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  and  as  many  other  courts  as  Con- 
gress may  see  fit  to  establish.  Congress,  therefore,  has  by 
law  determined  what  national  courts  shall  be  established  in 
addition  to  the  Supreme  Court,  and  how  many  judges  shall 
be  appointed  for  each  court,  including  the  Supreme  Court. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  SUPREME  COURT.  The 
Supreme  Court  consists  of  nine  judges,  or  justices  as  they  are 
called.  One  of  these,  the  Chief  Justice,  presides  over  the 
court.  No  case  can  be  heard  by  less  than  six  of  these  j  ustices, 
and  a  majority  of  those  hearing  the  case  must  agree  upon 
every  judgment  that  is  made.  Almost  the  entire  work  of 
this  court  consists  in  hearing  what  are  known  as  apjx'alcd 
cases.  These  are  cases  that  ha\e  already  been  tried  in  the 
lower  United  States  courts  or  in  the  courts  of  one  of  the  states, 
and  have  been  properly  brought  up,  or  appealed,  to  the 
Supreme  Court  for  a  final  determination. 

200 


THE  NATIONAL  COURTS  201 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court  is  the  highest  court  of 
our  nation.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  powerful  court  in  the 
world.  Its  justices  are  men  of  great  learning  in  the  law  and 
of  integrity  and  character  above  reproach.  A  seat  upon  the 
Supreme  Bench,  as  it  is  called,  is  one  of  the  highest  honors 
in  the  gift  of  the  nation.  Everybody  in  Virginia  should  be 
proud  to  reflect  that  the  greatest  justice  this  court  has  ever 
known  was  John  Marshall  of  Virginia.  From  1801  until  the 
time  of  his  death  in  1835  he  presided  over  the  Supreme  Court 
as  its  Chief  Justice.  In  the  opinions  which  he  handed  down 
during  these  years,  he  explained  more  clearly  than  anyone 
else  the  real  meaning  of  our  national  constitution,  and  the 
true  nature  of  the  federal  government  which  it  created. 

The  Supreme  Court  holds  its  sessions  in  the  capitol  at 
Washington.  It  is  a  solemn,  dignified,  and  impressive  court 
of  justice. 

THE  CIRCUIT  COURTS  OF  APPEAL.  For  judicial 
purposes  Congress  has  divided  the  entire  country  into  nine 
circuits,  a  number  of  states  being  included  in  each  circuit. 
Virginia,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina  form  the  fourth  judicial  circuit  of  the  nation.  In 
each  of  these  nine  circuits  there  is  a  circuit  court  of  appeals. 
These  courts  hear  cases  that  have  been  appealed  from  the 
United  States  district  courts,  and  in  many  instances  they  have 
the  power  to  determine  these  cases  finally,  there  being  no 
further  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court.  These  circuit  courts 
of  appeal  were  established  to  relieve  the  Supreme  Court  of  a 
part  of  its  work.  In  spite  of  the  assistance  which  they  give, 
the  Supreme  Court  is  greatly  overburdened  with  the  large 
number  of  cases  before  it.  After  a  case  has  been  carried  to 
this  court,  it  often  happens  that  it  cannot  be  considered  for 
two  years  or  more. 

THE  DISTRICT  CO URTS.  The  lowest  and  most  numer- 
ous branch  of  United  States  courts  are  the  district  courts. 
In  each  state  Congress  has  provided  for  one  or  more  judicial 


202    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

districts,  and  in  each  district  there  is  a  United  Slates  district 
court.  There  are  in  all  about  eighty  of  these  district  courts. 
Virginia  is  divided  into  two  of  these  national  judicial  districts. 
These  are  known  as  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Districts 
of  Virginia.  The  court  of  the  Eastern  District  sits  from  time 
to  time  in  Richmond,  Norfolk,  and  Alexandria.  The  court 
of  the  Western  District  sits  in  Lynchburg,  Danville,  Roanoke, 
Abingdon,  Big  Stone  Gap,  Charlottesville,  and  Harrisonburg. 


(jCopyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood) 

THE  UNITED  STATES  SUPREME  COURT  IN  SESSION 

The  man  standing  in  the  foreground  is  an  attorney  who  is  arguing  a  case  before 

the  court 


THE  JUDGES  OF  UNITED  STATES  COURTS.  In 
addition  to  the  nine  justices  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  there  are  in  each  of  the  nine  judicial  circuits  from  two 
to  four  circuit  judges,  and  in  each  of  the  eighty  judicial  dis- 
tricts at  least  one  district  judge.  All  of  these  justices  and 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate. 


THE  NATIONAL  COURTS  203 

Unlike  the  President  and  Vice-President,  United  States 
judges  hold  office  for  life,  or  as  the  phrase  goes,  "during  good 
behavior."  This  method  of  appointing  judges  for  unlimited 
terms  has  one  great  advantage.  When  once  he  has  been  ap- 
pointed, a  judge  holds  his  office  quite  independently  of  the 
President  and  Congress.  He  does  not  have  to  seek  re- 
appointment, and  therefore  he  does  not  have  to  consider 
politics.  He  can  perform  the  duties  of  his  office  with  justice 
and  fairness  to  all. 

THE  REMOVAL  OF  JUDGES  BY  IMPEACHMENT. 
If  a  judge  of  one  of  the  national  courts,  or  some  other  high 
officer  of  the  nation,  violates  the  trust  imposed  in  him,  he 
ought  not  to  remain  in  office.  If,  for  instance,  he  accepts  a 
bribe,  or  betrays  the  nation  to  an  enemy,  or  commits  some 
great  crime,  the  people  would  be  unwilling  to  have  such  a 
man  continue  in  office.  The  constitution  makes  provision 
by  which  such  an  officer  may  be  removed.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  convicting  him  upon  what  is  known  as  impeach- 
ment. Impeachment  is  a  kind  of  accusation  brought  against 
a  judge  or  other  public  officer.  It  is  somewhat  similar  in 
character  to  an  indictment  brought  by  a  grand  jury. 

The  national  constitution  gives  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives the  power  to  impeach  any  officer  of  the  United 
States.  The  Senate  is  made  a  court  for  the  trial  of  such  an 
impeachment,  and  the  officer  who  has  been  impeached  can  be 
convicted  only  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate.  If  con- 
victed, he  may  be  removed  from  office  and  forbidden  to  hold 
any  office  of  trust  in  the  future. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  rarely  exercised  this 
power  to  bring  impeachments.  In  1868  President  Johnson 
was  impeached  by  the  House;  but  the  Senate  failed  to  con- 
vict him  on  the  charges  brought  against  him.  Only  six 
national  judges  have  ever  been  impeached,  and  only  three  of 
these  were  convicted  and  removed  from  office. 


204    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

THE  JURISDICTION  OF  UNITED  ST  A  TES  COURTS. 
The  constitution  itself  declares  what  kinds  of  cases  may  be 
brought  before  the  courts  of  the  United  States.  It  seems  un- 
necessary to  enumerate  all  the  different  classes  of  cases  that 
are  thus  mentioned  in  the  constitution.  Some  of  them  are  in 
fact  of  very  little  importance.  It  is  highly  important,  how- 
ever, to  understand  in  general  that  the  national  courts  con- 
sider certain  important  classes  of  cases,  and  the  state  courts 
other  important  classes. 

Let  it  be  said,  then,  that  the  national  courts  determine 
cases  arising  under  the  constitution,  the  laws,  and  the  treaties 
of  the  United  States.  For  example,  if  one  person  claims  that 
his  patent  or  his  copyright  has  been  violated  by  another,  he 
brings  suit  in  a  national  court;  for  these  are  rights  in  which  he 
is  protected  by  the  laws  of  Congress.  Again,  if  a  person  is 
accused  of  counterfeiting  Ignited  States  money,  or  of  stealing 
from  the  United  States  mails,  he  is  tried  in  a  national  court, 
for  these  are  offenses  against  the  laws  of  the  nation.  Such 
cases  as  these  do  not  come  before  the  state  courts,  for  they  do 
not  require  the  application  of  state  law  but  of  national  law. 

Cases  of  one  other  important  class  are  brought  before  the 
courts  of  the  nation.  Ordineirily  these  courts  do  not  interpret 
and  apply  the  laws  of  any  state.  This  is  the  duty  of  the 
courts  of  that  state.  But  suppose  a  dispute  arises  between 
two  states,  and  one  of  them  brings  suit  against  the  other. 
Naturally  neither  of  the  states  would  be  willing  to  have  the 
trial  conducted  in  the  courts  of  the  other  state.  The  constitu- 
tion provides  that  such  a  suit  may  be  brought  in  the  I'nited 
States  Supreme  Court.  The  state  of  Virginia  recently  brought 
such  a  suit  against  the  state  of  West  Virginia  to  determine  a 
controversy  over  the  debt  which  Virginia  owed  at  the  time 
when  West  Virginia  was  formed  into  a  separate  state. 

Again,  suppose  a  citizen  of  one  state  wishes  to  sue  a  citizen 
of  another  state.  Or  suppose  a  suit  arises  between  a  citizen 
of  one  of  the  states  and  a  foreigner.     In  such  cases  as  these. 


THE  NATIONAL  COURTS  205 

the  courts  of  any  particular  state  might  be  inchned  to  favor 
the  citizens  of  that  state  as  against  outsiders.  It  is  provided, 
therefore,  that  such  suits  may  be  brought  in  the  national 
courts,  even  though  they  may  require  the  application  only  of 
state  law. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  kinds  of  cases  which  may  come 
before  the  national  courts,  but  these  arise  much  less  frequently 
than  those  just  mentioned.  In  general,  therefore,  the  cases 
heard  in  the  United  States  courts  are:  (1)  those  which  require 
the  application  of  the  laws  of  the  nation;  and  (2)  those  in 
which,  by  reason  of  the  character  of  the  parties  engaging  in 
the  suit,  the  national  courts  may  be  expected  to  render  more 
impartial  decisions  than  the  state  courts. 

THE  POWER  OF  THE  SUPREME  COURT  TO  PRO- 
TECT THE  NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  AGAINST 
THE  ST  A  TES.  We  have  seen  that  the  United  States  con- 
stitution is  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  and  that  it  imposes 
certain  important  restrictions  upon  the  powers  of  the  states. 
Now  suppose  a  state  passes  a  law  that  deprives  a  person  of 
his  property  without  paying  him  justly  for  it.  Or  suppose  a 
state  law  provides  for  the  collection  of  duties  on  imports. 
The  national  constitution  prohibits  any  state  from  passing 
such  laws  as  these.  At  once,  therefore,  a  conflict  arises  be- 
tween the  state  law  and  the  constitution  of  the  nation.  But 
the  constitution,  being  the  "supreme  law  of  the  land,"  must 
prevail  over  the  state  law.  The  situation  is  very  compli- 
cated. How  shall  a  man  proceed  who  has  been  deprived  by 
some  state  of  a  right  in  which  he  is  protected  by  the  national 
constitution?  This  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  particu- 
lar case.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  ordinarily  he  brings 
his  suit  In  a  state  court  and  asks  that  court  to  maintain  his 
rights  under  the  national  constitution.  If  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  state  decides  that  he  is  not  protected  by  the  na- 
tional constitution,  he  then  has  the  right  to  carry  his  case 
before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,     This  court  has  the 


206    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

power  to  determine  the  question  finally,  and  the  state  is  com- 
pelled to  obey  its  orders.  This  is  the  usual  method  by  which 
we  may  protect  ourselves  against  the  unlawful  exercise  of 
powers  by  any  state. 

THE  POWER  OF  THE  SUPREME  COURT  TO  PRO- 
TECT THE  CONSTITUTION  AGAINST  CONGRESS. 
The  United  States  Supreme  Court  also  has  the  power  to  pro- 
tect us  against  any  law  which  the  constitution  prohibits  Con- 
gress from  enacting.  As  we  have  seen,  Congress  can  exercise 
only  those  powers  that  are  given  to  it  either  expressly  or 
impliedly  by  the  terms  of  the  constitution.  If,  for  example, 
Congress  should  enact  a  law  regulating  the  pul)lic  school 
system  of  Virginia,  the  Supreme  Court  would  declare  the  law 
unconstitutional  and  would  refuse  to  enforce  it;  for  Congress 
is  not  granted  the  power  to  enact  such  a  law. 

It  is  by  their  refusal  to  enforce  certain  laws  of  the  states 
and  of  Congress  that  the  courts  have  preserved  the  division 
of  powers  which  the  constitution  makes  between  the  nation 
and  the  states.  For  whenever  the  states  have  exceeded  their 
constitutional  powers,  they  have  usually  exercised  powers 
that  are  granted  to  Congress.  And  whenever  Congress  has 
gone  beyond  its  powers,  it  has  usually  attempted  to  exercise 
some  power  reserved  to  the  states. 

THE  TRIALOF  CASES  IN  THE  NATION AL  COURTS. 
Cases  are  tried  before  the  national  courts  in  very  much  the 
same  way  that  they  are  tried  in  the  state  courts.  Most  of 
the  cases  in  the  United  States  district  courts  are  tried  by 
juries.  In  a  civil  suit,  there  are  lawyers  on  both  sides  of  the 
case,  who  argue  the  case  before  the  court.  In  a  criminal  suit, 
the  United  States  government  is  usually  rei)resented  by  an 
officer  known  as  a  United  States  district  attorney.  It  is  the 
duty  of  this  officer  to  pro\e  the  guilt  of  the  person  who  is 
accused  of  a  crime  against  the  laws  of  the  nation.  One  dis- 
trict attorney  is  appointed  in  each  of  the  eighty  judicial  dis- 
tricts. 


THE  NATIONAL  COURTS  207 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  why  the  national  courts  are  necessary,  in  addition  to  the 
courts  of  the  states. 

2.  Have  you  ever  seen  the  Supreme  Court  room  in  the  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington? If  so,  describe  it.  How  many  justices  sit  in  this  court?  How 
often  does  it  meet?     What  cases  does  it  consider? 

3.  Describe  the  system  of  national  courts  in  the  United  States.  In 
what  circuit  is  Virginia?  What  other  states  are  in  this  circuit?  How 
many  district  courts  are  there  in  Virginia?  Where  do  these  district  courts 
sit?     Why  were  the  circuit  courts  of  api)eals  established? 

4.  How  are  the  national  judges  appointed?  For  what  term?  Why? 
Find  out,  if  you  can,  the  name  of  our  present  Chief  Justice.  The  names 
of  some  of  the  other  justices  on  the  Supreme  Bench.  Find  out,  if  you 
can,  the  names  of  some  of  the  national  judges  who  sit  in  the  district  court 
and  the  circuit  court  of  appeals  in  Virginia. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  impeachment?  Why  is  it  necessary?  Who  has 
the  power  to  bring  impeachments?  How  must  the  accused  officer  be 
tried?  How  may  he  be  punished?  Tell  about  the  impeachment  of  Presi- 
dent Johnson. 

6.  What  classes  of  cases  may  be  brought  before  the  national  courts? 
What  cases  come  before  the  state  courts?  If  you  wished  to  defend  some 
right  granted  to  you  by  the  national  constitution,  how  would  you  prob- 
ably proceed?     Who  would  determine  your  case  finally? 

7.  Explain  how  the  Supreme  Court  protects  the  constitution  against 
the  states.     Against  Congress. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
NATIONAL  TAXATION 

THE  NECESSITY  FOR  NA  TIONAL  TAX  A  TION.  Just 
as  our  state  and  local  governments  find  it  necessary  to  raise 
a  large  amount  of  money  for  their  support,  so  the  national 
government  must  have  revenue  in  order  to  maintain  the  many 
important  serv^ices  which  it  undertakes.  For  one  of  these 
services,  the  postal  system,  we  indeed  pay  the  government 
directly;  but  even  in  this  department  of  its  work,  the  govern- 
ment has  often  spent  more  than  it  has  collected  from  the  sale 
of  stamps.  Most  of  the  other  enterprises  of  the  national 
government  are  undertaken  at  enormous  expense.  There 
must  be  money  for  the  support  of  the  army  and  navy,  for  con- 
structing defenses  along  the  coasts,  and  for  the  erection  at 
Washington  of  handsome  national  buildings,  such  as  the  Capi- 
tol, the  White  House,  the  Library  of  Congress,  and  the  build- 
ings occupied  by  the  various  departments  of  the  government. 
Courts  must  be  maintained  throughout  the  land.  Salaries 
must  be  paid  to  the  President  and  Vice-President,  the  members 
of  Congress,  the  judges  of  the  courts,  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments, to  our  diplomatic  representatives  abroad,  and  to 
thousands  of  less  important  officials  engaged  in  carrying  on 
the  work  of  the  national  government. 

By  the  national  constitution  the  government  of  the  United 
States  is  given  the  power  to  raise  its  revenue  without  any 
assistance  or  hindrance  on  the  part  of  the  states.  There  are 
three  principal  sources  from  which  the  national  government 
secures  the  revenue  it  needs. 

DUTIES  ON  IMPORTS.  Almost  from  the  beginning  of 
our  history  as  a  nation,  Congress  has  laid  duties  on  imports 
coming  from  foreign  countries  into  the  United  States.     At 

208 


NATIONAL  TAXATION  209 

first  these  duties  were  small,  but  today  they  are  quite  large. 
The  revenue  which  the  national  government  collects  annually 
from  these  customs  duties,  as  they  are  called,  amounts  usually 
to  more  than  two  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

Apparently  it  is  the  importer  of  these  goods  from  foreign 
countries  who  pays  the  duties  on  them  when  they  are  unloaded 
at  any  port  of  the  United  States.  In  reality,  however,  the 
importer  adds  the  amount  of  the  duty  to  the  price  charged 
for  his  goods.  We  ourselves  actually  pay  the  duty  in  the  in- 
creased price  of  gloves,  silks,  laces,  woolen  goods,  and  many 
other  articles  that  we  buy.  This  makes  the  burden  of  the 
customs  duties  appear  much  lighter,  for  people  do  not  realize 
that  they  are  paying  these  duties  as  a  part  of  the  price  they 
pay  for  many  articles.  We  call  such  a  tax  as  this  an  indirect 
tax.  It  is  much  less  difficult  to  collect  an  indirect  tax  than 
a  direct  tax,  for  those  who  purchase  the  goods  and  in  reality 
bear  the  tax  do  not  pay  it  to  an  officer  in  the  form  of  a  tax. 

For  the  collection  of  the  customs  duties  the  national  gov- 
ernment has  established  customs  houses  in  all  the  seaports 
and  border  towns  of  the  United  States.  The  collection  is 
under  the  control  of  the  national  Treasury  Department,  and 
numerous  customs  officers  are  employed  in  this  important 
work  of  the  government. 

Why  has  the  national  government  chosen  to  raise  a  large 
part  of  its  revenue  by  placing  high  duties  on  imports?  Many 
of  these  imports  consist  of  articles  manufactured  abroad. 
In  most  cases  these  articles  can  be  manufactured  just  as  well 
in  our  own  country,  although  they  can  be  manufactured 
abroad  more  cheaply.  By  imposing  large  duties  upon  them 
these  foreign  articles  are  made  more  expensive.  Thus  our 
home  manufactures  are  encouraged  and  promoted.  These  high 
duties  on  imports  are  known  as  a  protective  tariff,  because 
they  "protect"  our  home  industries  from  articles  made  more 
cheaply  abroad. 


210   GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Many  people  in  our  country  believe  that  the  tariff  should 
be  kept  high.  Others  believe  that  it  ought  to  be  low.  The 
Democratic  party  has  in  general  favored  a  low  tariff,  believing 
that  it  is,  after  all,  the  poorer  people  who  actually  bear  the 
burden  of  high  duties. 

EXCISE  TAXES.  In  accordance  with  the  power  granted 
by  the  constitution,  Congress  has  from  the  beginning  laid 
taxes  upon  the  manufacture  of  certain  articles  within  the 
United  States.  These  taxes  are  known  as  excise  taxes.  From 
this  source  the  national  government  secures  a  revenue  which 
in  some  years  has  even  exceeded  by  many  millions  the 
enormous  revenue  from  the  customs  duties.  The  money 
raised  by  the  excise  taxes  is  known. as  internal  revenue,  for, 
unlike  the  duties  on  imports,  these  taxes  are  laid  on  goods 
made  within  the  United  States. 

The  principal  manufactures  upon  which  excise  taxes  are 
laid  are  spirituous  liquors  and  tobacco.  On  cigar  boxes,  for 
example,  there  is  always  a  green  stamp  so  placed  that  the  box 
cannot  be  opened  without  breaking  and  thus  destroying  the 
stamp.  This  stamp  represents  the  excise  tax  that  has  been 
paid  upon  the  manufacture  of  the  cigars.  Such  taxes  are 
imposed  upon  the  manufacture  of  liquors  and  tobacco  for 
two  purposes.  In  the  first  place,  they  bring  in  a  large  revenue 
to  the  government;  and  in  the  second  place,  they  raise  the 
price  and  thus  decrease  the  sale  of  two  articles  which  are 
recognized  generally  to  be  unnecessary,  if  not,  indeed,  in- 
jurious to  the  people. 

Like  the  customs  duties,  excise  taxes  are  also  indirect  taxes. 
They  are  not  borne  by  the  manufacturer  who  pays  them  to  an 
officer  of  the  government.  To  the  price  of  his  liquors  or 
tobacco  the  manufacturer  adds  the  amount  of  the  excise  tax, 
and  the  purchaser  pays  the  tax  in  the  increased  prices  of  these 
articles  when  he  buys  them. 

The  numerous  officers  who  attend  to  the  collection  of  the 
excise  taxes  are  known  as  internal  rexenuc  officers.     Like  the 


NATIONAL  TAXATION  211 

customs  officers,  they  are  under  the  control  of  the  Treasury 
Department. 

TAXES  ON  INCOMES.  Our  national  government  is 
enormously  expensive.  It  spends  annually  about  $1,000,- 
000,000.  Now  if  the  customs  duties  are  greatly  lowered,  the 
revenue  of  the  government  from  this  source  will  naturally 
be  decreased,  and  some  other  kind  of  tax  must  be  imposed  to 
make  up  the  difference.  In  1913  the  Democratic  party  in 
Congress  greatly  lowered  the  then  existing  duties  on  imports. 
On  many  articles  the  duty  Mas  removed  entirely.  In  order 
to  make  up  for  the  resulting  loss  of  revenue,  they  levied, 
under  the  authority  of  the  sixteenth  amendment  to  the  con- 
stitution, which  had  just  been  ratified,  what  is  known  as  an 
income  tax.  This  is  a  tax  imposed  on  all  persons  and  cor- 
porations in  the  country  and  is  based  upon  the  amount  of 
their  annual  incomes.  However,  those  whose  incomes  are 
less  than  a  few  thousand  dollars  are  not  required  to  pay  this 
tax.  Many  people  believe  that  this  is  the  most  just  form  of 
taxation  possible,  since  a  person's  income  is  the  best  test  of 
his  ability  to  pay.  The  national  income  taxes  are  collected 
by  the  internal  revenue  collectors. 

RELATION  BETWEEN  NATIONAL  AND  STATE 
TAX  A  TION.  The  customs  duties  and  the  excise  and  income 
taxes  are  not  the  only  forms  of  taxation  which  the  national 
government  may  adopt;  but  ordinarily  they  are  the  only 
forms  employed.  In  times  of  war,  when  the  United  States 
government  has  needed  large  additions  to  its  revenue,  taxes 
have  been  imposed  on  many  other  things.  During  the 
Spanish-American  War,  for  example,  stamp  taxes  were  im- 
posed on  bank  checks,  freight  bills,  Pullman  tickets,  and 
other  things;  but  these  were  withdrawn  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  war.  During  the  European  War,  which  began  in 
1914,  our  revenue  from  customs  duties  was  partly  interrupted ; 
and  the  government  again  imposed  stamp  taxes  on  a  few 
things. 


212    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

Roth  the  .states  and  the  national  go\ernnient  are  pro- 
hibited by  the  constitution  from  la}ing  duties  on  exports  from 
the  United  States;  and  the  states  are  also  fori)idden  to  lay 
any  duties  on  imports.  Nor  do  the  states  as  a  rule  lay  excise 
taxes  upon  the  manufacture  of  liquor  and  tobacco,  although 
they  might  le\y  such  taxes  if  they  wished  to  do  so.  Thus 
you  see  that  the  states  do  not  interfere  with  two  of  the  chief 
sources  of  the  national  revenue— the  customs  duties  and  the 
excise  taxes.  The  goxernment  of  Virginia  does,  as  we  have 
seen,  levy  taxes  on  incomes,  but  most  of  the  states  of  the 
Union  do  not  levy  such  taxes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  national  government  does  not  lay 
taxes  on  real  estate,  personal  property,  or  franchises;  nor 
does  it  impose  poll  taxes;  and  only  in  rare  instances  license 
taxes.  These,  as  we  have  seen,  are  among  the  chief  sources 
of  our  state  and  local  revenues.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
the  methods  by  which  the  government  of  the  nation  and  the 
governments  of  the  states  secure  their  respective  revenues  are 
for  the  most  part  quite  distinct.  This  has  its  advantages,  for 
if  taxes  were  laid  by  both  governments  on  the  same  things,  it 
might  result  in  excessive  taxation. 

RESTRICTIONS  ON  THE  TAXING  POWER  OF  CON- 
GRESS. In  the  exercise  of  its  taxing  power,  the  constitu- 
tion places  two  important  restrictions  upon  the  national 
government.  In  the  first  place,  direct  taxes  must  be  appor- 
tioned among  the  states  according  to  their  population.  The 
result  of  this  restriction  is  that  Congress  has  seldom  attempted 
to  levy  a  direct  tax.  It  is  far  too  difficult  to  apportion  such 
a  tax  among  the  states.  For  example,  suppose  Congress 
should  attempt  to  lay  a  tax  on  land.  This  would  be  a  direct 
tax,  for  the  owner  of  the  land  would  himself  bear  the  tax. 
Such  a  tax  would  have  to  be  distributed  among  the  forty- 
eight  states  according  to  their  population.  This  would 
necessitate  a  different  rate  of  taxation  in  each  of  the  states 


NATIONAL  TAXATION  213 

and  would  require  an  army  of  officers  to  superintend  its 
collection. 

The  second  restriction  on  the  taxing  power  of  Congress  is 
found  in  the  requirement  of  the  constitution  that  "all  duties, 
imports,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States."  This  means  that  Congress  may  not  levy  a  duty  on 
imports  brought  into  New  York  and  refuse  to  levy  the  same 
duty  on  similar  imports  brought  into  Norfolk  or  San  Francisco. 
No  preference  can  be  given  to  the  ports  of  one  state  over 
those  of  another.  Nor  may  Congress  impose  an  excise  tax 
on  one  manufacturer  of  liquors  or  tobacco  and  refuse  to  im- 
pose a  like  tax  on  another  manufacturer  of  similar  articles. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Who  is  the  postmaster  at  your  post-office?  Who  pays  him  for  his 
services?  Is  there  a  rural  free  delivery  in  your  community?  Who  pays 
the  carrier  for  his  services?     How  is  postal  service  supported? 

2.  Who  pays  for  the  support  of  our  army?  For  the  building  of  our 
battleships?  For  the  construction  of  coast  defences,  like  Fortress  Monroe? 
Who  pays  the  salaries  of  the  President,  the  members  of  Congress,  our 
diplomatic  representatives,  and  all  the  other  officers  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment? Mention  other  services  undertaken  by  the  United  States 
government  which  require  large  expenditures  of  money.  How  is  this 
money  secured?  Explain,  then,  how  we  as  a  people  are  benefited  by  the 
taxes  paid  to  the  national  government. 

3.  Find  out  from  your  father  or  some  other  person  in  your  community 
whether  he  pays  any  taxes  directly  to  the  national  government. 

4.  What  are  imports?  Suppose  an  importer  buys  gloves  in  London  for 
one  dollar  a  pair  and  pays  on  each  pair  imported  to  the  United  States  a 
duty  of  sixty  cents;  what  would  these  gloves  probably  sell  for  in  American 
shops?  Suppose  you  buy  a  pair  of  them,  who  pays  the  duty  of  sixty  cents? 
Do  you  realize  that  you  are  paying  it?  Do  you  pay  it  directly  to  the  gov- 
ernment? Who  pays  it  to  the  government  collector?  What  kind  of  tax 
is  this  called,  and  why? 

5.  Why  does  the  United  States  government  place  large  duties  on  im- 
ports? Why  is  this  called  a  "protective  tariff"?  Explain  fully  how  our 
protective  tariff  is  meant  to  encourage  home  manufactures. 

6.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  government  stamp  on  a  cigar  box?  How  la 
this  stamp  placed,  and  what  does  it  mean?     On  the  manufacture  of  what 


214    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

article  besides  tobacco  are  excise  taxes  levied?     Why  does  the  national 
government  place  taxes  on  the  manufacture  of  these  articles? 

7.  Suppose  it  costs  a  manufacturer  two  dollars  to  make  a  box  of  cigars, 
and  suppose  the  Ignited  States  government  places  an  excise  tax  of  fifty 
cents  on  each  box  that  he  makes;  what  would  this  box  i)robably  sell  for 
in  the  shojw?  Who  pays  the  tax  of  fifty  cents?  What  kind  of  tax  is 
this  called,  and  why? 

8.  What  is  the  national  income  tax? 

9.  Explain  how  our  national  government  and  our  state  government 
secure  their  revenues  from  different  sources.  What  is  the  advantage  of 
this? 

10.  What  are  the  two  great  principles  of  national  taxation?  What 
difficulty  would  the  government  of  the  Inited  States  meet  if  it  laid  a  tax 
on  real  estate?  Suppose  a  New  York  importer  pays  a  duty  of  three  dollars 
a  yard  on  lace  worth  five  dollars  a  yard;  what  duty  will  a  Norfolk  or  New- 
l)ort  News  importer  pay  for  the  same  lace? 

11.  Who  has  the  power  to  impose  these  duties  and  taxes?  Who 
determines  how  the  money  that  is  raised  by  these  means  shall  be  ex- 
pended? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITIZEN 

A  SUMMARY.  In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  learned 
that  our  government  is  estabhshed,  first,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  and  enforcing  certain  rules  that  protect  us  in  our 
rights  and  in  the  pursuit  of  our  desires,  and,  second,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  certain  services  which  we  as  individuals 
could  not  supply  for  ourselves.  We  have  seen  that  govern- 
ment in  the  United  States  is  established  and  maintained  by 
the  people  themselves.  We  have  seen,  further,  that  ours  is 
a  somewhat  complicated  system  of  government — that  cer- 
tain functions  are  performed  by  our  national  government 
while  certain  other  functions  are  performed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  our  state,  and  that  within  our  state  there  are  the 
governments  of  our  local  communities,  such  as  counties, 
cities,  and  towns,  which  local  governments  are  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  central  government  of  the  state.  The  object 
of  our  study  has  been  that  we  might  understand  what  these 
several  branches  of  our  government  are  attempting  to  do  for 
us,  how  they  assist  us  in  the  living  of  our  lives,  and  how  they 
are  organized  and  operated  for  this  purpose. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INDIVIDUAL  RIGHTS 
UNDER  THE  LAW.  The  rules,  or  laws,  which  the  gov- 
ernment makes  and  enforces  impose  restrictions  upon  each 
of  us;  but  these  restrictions  are  both  reasonable  and  neces- 
sary. We  must  allow  the  government  to  restrict  us  because 
the  rights  of  others  must  be  considered  and  protected.  We 
must  compel  the  government  to  restrict  others  because  our 
own  rights  must  be  considered  and  protected.  It  is  thus  by 
restricting  the  liberties  of  all  of  us  in  certain  respects  that 
everybody  knows  what  his  own  rights  are  and  what  his  legal 

215 


216  CKWERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

ol:)ligatioiis  are  toward  his  fellowmen.  h\  ollur  words,  the 
reasonable  rights  of  every  person  are  thus  protected  against 
the  unreasonable  demands  or  desires  of  every  other  person. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  our  rights  under  the 
law  remain  always  the  same.  They  are,  on  the  contrary, 
subject  to  change  from  time  to  time,  as  new  conditions  arise 
or  as  people  alter  their  ideas  about  the  reasonableness  or 
justice  of  this  or  that  law.  We  have  seen,  for  example,  that 
there  was  a  time  when  persons  were  punished  for  their  failure 
to  belong  to  and  support  a  particular  church.  Long  ago  the 
people  decided  that  this  was  unjust — that  the  government 
had  no  right  to  regulate  such  a  matter  as  this.  They  there- 
fore repealed  the  laws  on  this  subject  and  restored  to  every 
person  the  right  of  freedom  of  religion.  Again,  there  w^as  a 
time  when  most  of  the  colored  people  in  Virginia  and  the  rest 
of  the  Southern  states  were  held  in  slavery  and  enjoyed,  in 
consequence,  few  personal  rights.  But  as  a  result  of  the  War 
Between  the  States  slavery  was  abolished,  and  the  colored 
people  were  given  the  same  rights  under  the  law  that  white 
people  enjoy.  In  spite  of  the  terrible  trial  of  the  war,  there 
is  probably  no  thinking  person  in  the  South  today  who  would 
wish  to  see  the  rights  of  these  people  taken  away  from  them 
and  the  institution  of  slavery  restored. 

Again,  it  was  only  a  short  time  ago  when  every  person  in 
Virginia  had  the  right  to  buy  and  sell  intoxicating  liquors; 
but  this  right  has  now  been  taken  away  because  the  people 
of  the  state  thought  it  was  for  the  best  interests  of  all  that 
everybody  should  be  deprived  of  this  right.  To  cite  only 
one  other  instance,  there  was  a  time  many  years  ago  when 
persons  who  could  not  pay  their  debts  were  thrown  into  prison. 
The  people  finally  came  to  realize  not  only  that  this  form  of 
punishment  was  often  cruelly  unjust  but  also  that  it  actually 
prevented  the  person  who  was  thus  imprisoned  from  earning 
money  with  which  he  might  be  able  to  pay  off  his  debts. 

Illustrations  of  this  kind  might  be  mentioned  almost  in- 


THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITIZEN      217 

definitely;  but  this  seems  unnecessary.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
at  the  present  time  we  enjoy  numerous  rights  which  were 
formerly  denied  by  the  law.  On  the  other  hand,  we  are  de- 
prived b}^  the  law  of  many  rights  which  our  forefathers  en- 
joyed. And  this  is  as  it  should  be.  The  conditions  under 
which  people  live  and  their  views  about  rights  and  justice 
are  constantly,  though  gradually,  changing.  It  is  natural, 
therefore,  that  they  should  also  change  the  laws  in  w^hich 
these  rights  and  views  are  embodied.  These  changes  in  the 
laws  are  not  usually  made  suddenly;  they  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, made  rather  slowly.  The  point  to  remember  is  that 
our  rights  over  against  our  fellowmen  and  our  duties  toward 
them  do  not  remain  fixed  and  stationary.  Our  government  is 
a  living  thing;  and  like  all  living  things  it  grows  and  develops. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that  our  obligations  toward 
those  with  whom  we  come  in  contact  are  regulated  entirely 
by  la-ws.  It  is  only  the  most  important  of  our  rights  and 
duties  that  the  government  seeks  to  control  by  laws.  We 
have  many  duties  toward  our  families  and  our  neighbors 
that  we  perform,  not  because  the  law  commands  them,  but 
from  a  sense  of  kindness  and  consideration  or  because  we 
appreciate  and  understand  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong  conduct.  If  we  were  content  to  do  for  one  another 
only  those  things  which  the  laws  positively  require,  we  should 
indeed  live  very  wretched  community  lives. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  GOVERNMENTAL  SER- 
VICES. Just  as  our  rights  under  the  law  are  subject  to 
gradual  change,  so  in  the  course  of  time  has  the  government 
gradually  undertaken  to  perform  more  and  more  services  for 
the  benefit  of  the  people.  A  century  or  more  ago  the  govern- 
ment, for  example,  constructed  very  few  roads  and  provided 
no  schools.  In  cities  the  government  did  not  maintain  or- 
ganized police  forces  nor  fire  departments.  It  did  not  light 
and  pave  and  clean  the  streets,  nor  remove  sewage  and  garbage 
and  ashes  and  rubbish  from  the  people's  homes.     It  did  not 


218    c;C)\ERx\iMEX'r  AND  POLITICS  l.\  \  IRGIiNIA 

furnish  water  nor  pro\ide  parks.  In  the  course  of  time,  how- 
ever, the  government  began  to  furnish  one  after  another  of 
these  services;  for  the  people  came  to  reahze  how  important 
they  were  to  the  welfare  of  the  community,  and  it  seemed 
appropriate  that  the  government  itself  should  establish  and 
maintain  them  for  the  benefit  of  all. 

It  is  probable,  moreover,  that  as  time  goes  on  the  govern- 
ment will  undertake  other  services  for  the  common  well- 
being  of  the  people.  What  these  services  may  be  we  do  not 
know.  Certainly  the  government  will  not  be  likely  to  rush 
in  and  undertake  services  that  are  being  satisfactorily  car- 
ried on  by  private  indi\iduals  or  companies. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SUFFRAGE.  We 
have  had  occasion  to  note  that  the  people  participate  in  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  the  government  chiefly 
by  casting  their  ballots  at  primary  elections,  when  the  party 
candidates  are  chosen,  and  at  the  regular  elections,  when  the 
officers  of  the  government  are  chosen  from  among  the  party 
candidates.  W'e  have  observed,  too,  that  not  all  the  people 
are  permitted  to  vote — that  the  women,  the  children,  and 
some  of  the  men  are  excluded  from  this  pri\ilcge.  While 
the  number  of  persons  that  are  thus  excluded  in  Virginia  is 
very  large,  it  is  by  no  means  so  large,  in  proportion  to  the 
population  of  the  state,  as  it  formerly  was.  Time  was  when 
in  most  of  the  states  only  those  could  vote  or  hold  office  who 
owned  a  certain  amount  of  property  and  who  belonged  to  a 
particular  church.  These  qualifications  were,  however, 
finally  removed ;  and  the  suffrage  was  extended  to  practically 
all  men  who  were  twenty-one  or  more  years  of  age.  It  was 
only  in  1902  that  an  educational  qualification  was  introduced 
in  Virginia  and  that  the  requirement  of  the  payment  of  poll 
taxes  was  made  more  rigid.  These  qualifications,  which  are 
at  the  present  time  found  in  only  a  few  states  of  the  Union, 
naturally  reduced  the  number  of  those  who  voted  in  Virginia. 
In  most  of  the  states  every  male  resident  adult  citizen  is 


THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITIZEN      219 

entitled  to  vote;  and  in  a  number  of  states  this  privilege  has 
been  extended  also  to  women.  In  other  words,  it  is  simply 
a  fact  that,  for  the  most  part,  suffrage  qualifications  have 
been  gradually  reduced  in  the  United  States,  and  that  in 
consequence  more  and  more  people  have  been  able  to  partici- 
pate in  the  government  by  exercising  the  right  to  vote.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  people  of  each  state 
have  the  power  to  determine  who  shall  vote  in  that  state. 
They  may  even  determine  who  shall  vote  in  the  state  for  con- 
gressmen and  senators  and  presidential  electors;  for  the  na- 
tional government  has  no  power  to  fix  the  qualifications  for 
suffrage  even  in  national  elections. 

OUR  RESPONSIBILITY  TO  TWO  GOVERNMENTS. 
In  the  beginning  of  our  history  as  a  nation  there  was  con- 
siderable rivalry  between  the  national  government  and  the 
governments  of  the  several  states,  and  there  was  to  some  ex- 
tent a  feeling  of  divided  loyalty  on  the  part  of  the  people. 
This  rivalry  lasted  for  many  years,  and  even  at  the  present 
time  many  people  think  that  the  powers  of  the  states  should 
be  carefully  and  jealously  guarded.  Others  believe  that  the 
national  government  should  be  given  much  larger  powers 
than  it  now  enjoys.  In  spite  of  this  difference  of  view, 
everybody  now  recognizes  that  there  is  no  longer  any  question 
of  loyalty  involved  in  this  difference.  Whether  this  or  that 
power  should  be  taken  away  from  the  states  and  given  to 
the  national  government  or  should  be  taken  away  from  the 
national  government  and  given  to  the  states  is  simply  a 
question  of  policy.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  question  as  to 
which  of  these  branches  of  our  government  could  probably 
exercise  the  particular  power  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
people.  It  is  not  a  question  of  our  greater  devotion  to  our 
state  or  to  our  national  government. 

In  many  respects  the  government  of  our  country  or  city  is 
closer  to  us  than  the  central  government  of  our  state ;  and  the 
government  of  our  state  is  closer  to  us  than  that  of  our  nation. 


220    GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

We  should  not,  however,  be  mislead  by  this.  All  of  these 
governments  are  simply  parts  of  a  great  whole.  Each  of 
them  helps  us  in  its  own  way  and  within  its  own  sphere  of 
powers.  We  should  be  interested  in  and  loyal  to  each  of 
these  governments.  We  should  take  pride  in  the  develop- 
ment of  our  county,  our  town,  or  our  city;  and  we  should 
desire  to  see  it  ha^•e  the  best  government  that  is  possible. 
As  Virginians  we  have  every  reason  to  be  proud  of  our  splen- 
did state.  We  should  never  fail  to  remember,  however,  that 
the  people  of  the  United  States  are  one  people.  We  should 
be  happy  to  know  that  above  all  else  we  are  American  citi- 
zens. 

OUR  DUTY  AS  AMERICAN  CITIZENS.  It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  for  each  of  us  to  realize  that  he  has  a 
personal  part  in  the  scheme  of  government  which  we  have 
been  studying.  All  the  branches  of  our  government  belong 
to  us.  Our  forefathers  created  them  and  we  have  preserved 
them.  Whether  our  government,  in  our  community,  our 
state,  or  our  nation,  is  good  and  effective  or  is  bad  and  in- 
effective depends  wholly  upon  us.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
we  should  understand  why  our  government  is  established, 
how  it  is  organized  and  operated,  and  what  are  the  ideals  that 
it  is  seeking  to  work  out  for  our  benefit. 

Nearly  every  day  the  several  branches  of  our  government 
are  settling  important  questions  that  are,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  of  importance  to  every  one  of  us.  These  ques- 
tions are  discussed  in  our  newspapers  and  magazines.  They 
are  the  subject  of  conversation  among  intelligent  men  and 
women.  Many  of  them  can  be  understood  by  intelligent 
boys  and  girls.  All  of  us  should  be  interested  in  them. 
We  should  study  them  and  try  to  understand  them.  We 
cannot  do  this,  however,  unless  we  have  taken  time  to  study 
and  understand  the  principles  of  our  government.  Let  each 
of  us  bear  in  mind  that  the  government  will  not  run  itself. 
If  we  stand  aside,  absorbed  in  our  own  affairs,  and  let  the 


THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITIZEN      221 

government  take  care  of  itself,  it  will  surely  fall  into  the  hands 
of  corrupt  men,  who  will  take  advantage  of  the  people's 
indifference  and  will  use  the  people's  money  without  regard 
for  the  people's  interests  but  for  their  own  selfish  ends.  If 
we  are  to  have  good  government,  the  people — that  is,  you 
and  I — must  not  only  understand  the  government  but  must 
also  be  watchful,  interested,  and  willing  to  assist  in  every 
possible  way. 

How  can  we  assist?  We  can  study  the  principles  of  our 
government.  We  can  study  and  endeavor  to  understand  the 
questions  which  our  government  has  to  face  and  decide.  We 
can  inform  ourselves  in  regard  to  the  candidates  who  are  seek- 
ing office,  so  that  we  can  cast  our  votes  with  intelligence.  We 
can  use  our  influence  to  get  the  best  men  nominated  for,  and 
elected  to,  office.  When  our  country  needs  us,  whether  to 
serve  on  a  grand  jury  or  to  cast  our  ballot,  or  to  hold  office, 
or  to  defend  the  nation  in  time  of  war,^  we  can  respond  with 
patriotism  and  devotion.  We  can  pay  our  taxes  willingly, 
realizing  that  the  government  cannot  exist  and  perform  all  of 
its  necessary  and  invaluable  services  unless  it  has  the  money 
with  which  to  meet  expenses.  \^'e  can  obey  the  laws  cheer- 
fully, even  though  we  are  occasionally  inclined  to  believe  that 
this  or  that  law  is  unwise  or  unjust.  These  are  some  of  the 
more  commonplace  duties  which  every  good  American  citizen 
owes  to  himself  and  his  fellow  citizens. 

But  this  is  not  all.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  we  do  our 
duty  directly  in  the  matter  of  carrying  on  and  furthering  the 
interests  of  the  government  itself.  On  more  than  one  occasion 
in  the  course  of  our  study  we  have  had  occasion  to  note  that 
the  responsibility  for  the  progress  and  de^'elopment  of  a 
community  does  not  rest  wholly  upon  the  government. 
The  government  cannot  do  everything  that  the  community 
needs.  We  as  individuals  and  in  our  private  societies  and 
associations  can  and  ought  to  do  not  only  many  things  to 
help  the  government  but  also  many  things  for  the  better- 


222    CCARRNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN  VIRGINIA 

ment  of  our  connnuuiiy  wliicli  the  government  does  not  under- 
take at  all.  Some  men  do  nothing  for  their  community 
except  to  cast  their  votes  on  election  days.  ^  e  men  do 
not  even  do  that.  Some  women  and  children  do  nothing 
for  their  community  either  because  they  are  indifferent,  or 
because  they  think  that  everything  should  be  done  by  the 
go\'ernment  itself,  or  because  they  have  never  stopped  to 
think  of  the  many  wa^s  in  which  they  might  be  of  assistance. 
Such  persons  are  not  making  the  best  of  their  opportunities. 
They  are  not  living  up  to  the  high  ideal  of  citizenship  of  which 
they  are  capable;  for  this  ideal  means  that  we  must  recognize 
our  responsibilities  in  return  for  the  privileges  that  we  enjoy 
by  reason  of  our  community  life.  If  we  do  nothing  more,  we 
can  at  least  be  energetic  and  industrious,  and  thus  by  our  own 
progress  promote  the  progress  of  our  community.  We  can 
at  all  times  be  considerate  of  the  rights  of  others.  We  can 
be  honest  with,  and  kind  to,  our  fellowmcn.  And  we  can 
greatly  improve  the  appearance  of  our  community  by  im- 
proving the  appearance  of  our  own  property. 

Perhaps  of  all  American  citizens  the  citizen  who  has  been 
born  on  foreign  soil  but  has  become  naturalized  in  this  coun- 
try owes  the  greatest  amount  of  loyalty  and  devotion  to  the 
government.  We  have  received  him  gladly  and  made  him 
one  of  us.  He  has  voluntarily  accepted  our  hospitality  as 
a  nation.  He  should  show  his  appreciation  by  his  interest 
in  everything  that  makes  for  the  betterment  of  the  community 
in  which  he  has  chosen  to  live;  and  in  time  of  stress,  when 
perhaps  the  American  nation  has  been  brought  into  disagree- 
ment with  some  foreign  nation,  even  though  that  nation  be 
the  one  under  which  he  was  born,  his  loyalty  to  America, 
the  country  of  his  voluntary  adoption,  should  be  above  the 
possibility  of  criticism. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  protection  against, 
11-13. 

Adjutant  General,  102. 

Administrative  board,  Rich- 
mond, 121. 

Agriculture,  government  as- 
sistance to,  38-42;  State 
Commissioner  of,  98;  State 
Board  of,  98,  99;  national 
government  assistance,  155; 
U.  S.  Department  of,  197. 

Alaska,  government  of,  173. 

Aldermen,  120. 

Ambassadors,  137,  193. 

Amendment,  of  Va.  constitu- 
tion, method  of,  72;  of  na- 
tional constitution,  161,  162. 

Amendments  of  national  con- 
stitution, seventeen,  162-165. 

American  citizens,  the  making 
of,  139,  140;  who  are,  163, 
164;  duties  of,  220-222. 

Annapolis  Convention,  159. 

Appeals,  meaning  of,  21,  106, 
200,  201. 

Appointment,  Governor's  pow- 
er of,  94;  President's  pow- 
er of,  191. 

Army,  U.  S.,  140,  142. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  158, 
159. 

Assessment,  of  property,  114, 

115;  special,  36,  129. 
Assessors,  land,  114. 
Attorney  General,  of  Va.,  94, 
96,  97;  of  U.  S.,  196,  197. 

Attorneys,      commonwealth.'s, 
109,  114,  121;  U.  S.  district, 
197,  206. 
Auditor,   of  Va.,   97;    Second, 
97. 


Bail,  19,  20. 
Ballot,  77. 


Ballot  box,  77. 

Banks,  control  over  state,  99; 
postal  savings,  151;  nation- 
al, 152-154;    reserve,   153. 

Berkeley,   Governor,  43. 

Bill,  meaning  of,  88,  182. 

Blacksburg,  551. 

Board  of  control,  Norfolk,  121. 

Boards,  of  visitors,  102;  see 
also  State  Board. 

Boss,  political,  91. 

Boys'  corn  clubs,  42. 

Cabinet,  President's,  194,  195. 

Campaign,  political,  188,  189. 

Canal,  Panama,  143,  147. 

Canning  clubs,   girls',   42. 

Capo  Charles,  143. 

Cape  Henry,  143. 

Capitol,  of  Va.,  90,  91;  of  U. 
S.,  134. 

Cattle,  diseases  of,  40,  41. 

Census,  177. 

Charities,  14,  102. 

Charlottesville,  51. 

Charter,  of  corporations,  99; 
meaning  of  city,  120. 

Circuit  courts,  in  Va.,  106;  of 
appeals,  U.  S.,  201. 

Circuits,  judicial,  in  Va.,  106; 
U.  S.  judicial,  201. 

Cities,  life  in,  2;   why  people 
live  in,  3;   preservation  of 
peace  in,   10;    accidents  in 
12,  13;  health  in,  24,  28,  29 
drinking  water  in,   24,   25 
protection  of  milk  and  foods 
in,  25,  26;  fire  departments 
in,  32;  education  in,  50,  51; 
libraries  in,  54;   streets  in, 
62-65;  parks  in,  66;  nomina- 
tion    of     officers     in,     85; 
courts  in,  105,  106;  growth 
of,  in  Va.,  118;  problems  of, 
119-120;  government  of,  120- 


223 


224 


INDEX. 


124;  distinguished  from 
towns,  124,  125;  taxation  in, 
131. 

Citizenship,  duties  of,  79,  220- 
222;  a  qualification  for 
voters,  74,  75;  granted  to 
aliens,  139,  140,  197;  grant- 
ed to  negroes,   163,  164. 

City  manager,  124. 

City  planning,  62. 

Civil  Service  Commisson,  U. 
S.,  198. 

Civil  suit,  meaning  of,  109. 

Clerk,  of  county,  114. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  141. 

Coast  defenses,  143. 

Collectors,  of  customs,  209;  of 
internal  revenue,  210,  211. 

Colonies,  government  of,  68, 
157;  union  of,  157. 

Colored  people,  freedom  of, 
from  slavery,  17,  163; 
schools  for,  49,  52;  citizen- 
ship granted  to,  163,  164; 
protection  for,  164. 

Commerce,  foreign,  137,  145; 
interstate,  145-148,  198;  U. 
S.  Department  of,  197. 

Commission  plan  of  city  gov- 
ernment, 122,  123. 

Commissioner,  of  Agriculture 
and  Immigration,  94,  98; 
Dairy  and  food,  99;  of  La- 
bor and  Industrial,  Statis- 
tics, 100;  of  Highways,  100; 
of  Health,  lOO;  of  State 
Hospitals,  102. 

Commissioners     of     revenue, 

county,  114,  115. 
Committees,  of  General  As- 
sembly, 88,  89;  of  political 
parties,  82,  188,  189;  of  city 
councils,  121;  of  Congress, 
181,  182. 
Commonwealth's         attorney, 

109,   114,  121. 
Community,   definition   of,   2; 
why  people  live  in,  3;   lib- 
erty in,  14,  15;  how  schools 
help,   52,   53;    improvement 


of  appearances  of,  59,  60,  63, 
64. 
Congress,  powers  of,  168,  169; 
restrictions  on,  109-171;  two 
houses  of,  175;  representa- 
tion in,  175-178;  sessions  of, 

179,  180;     organization    or, 

180,  181;  committee  system 
in,  181,  182;  protection 
against,  by  courts,  206. 

Congress  of  Confederacy,  90. 
Congressional    districts,    175- 

177. 
Congressmen,  election. of,  175- 
177;  term  of,  177;  qualifica- 
tions of,  ISO;  nomination  of, 
178,  179;  power  of,  over  ap- 
pointments, 191,  192. 
Consolidated  schools,  48,  49. 

Constables,  10,  31,  93,  114. 

Constitution,  origin  of,  68,  69, 
definition  of,  69;  history  of, 
in  Va.,  69,  70;  of  1902, 
70,  71;  importance  of, 
in  Va.,  71;  amendment  of, 
72;  of  the  nation,  157-166; 
framing  of  national,  159, 
160;  adoption  of  national, 
160,  161;  opposition  to  na- 
tional, 160;  amendment  of 
national,  101,  16z;  seven- 
teen amendments  to  nation- 
al, 162-165;  importance  of 
national,  105,  IGO;  nation- 
al, is  supreme  law  of  the 
land,  168 ;  protection  of  na- 
tional, 205,  206. 

Consuls,  145. 

Consuls  general,  145. 

Continental  Congress,  157, 
158. 

Convention,  constitutional,  in 
Va.,  69-71 ;  of  political  par- 
ties, 83-85;  Annapolis,  159; 
constitutional,  of  1787,  159; 
ratifying,  of  Va.,  160;  na- 
tional party,  188. 

Copyrights,  154. 

Corn   clubs,   boys',   42. 

Coroners,  115. 


INDEX. 


225 


Corporation  Commission  of 
Va.,  99. 

Corporations,  99. 

Corporation  courts,  106. 

Council,  city,  120,  122;  town, 
125. 

Councilmanic  plan,  of  city 
government,  122. 

Councilmen,  120,  122. 

Counties,  roads  in,  59;  courts 
in,  105,  106;  reason  for,  in 
Va.,  Ill,  112;  powers  of, 
112;  government  of,  112- 
116;  history  of,  116. 

Courts,  necessity  for,  104; 
protection  in,  104,  105;  sys- 
tem of,  in  Va.,  105-108; 
judges  of,  in  Va.,  108;  ne- 
cessity for  national,  200; 
system  of  national,  200-202; 
judges  of  national,  202,  203; 
jurisdiction  of  national,  204, 
205. 

Criminal  case,  meaning  of, 
109. 

Crop  pests,  40. 

Customs,  see  Duties. 

Dairy  and  Food  Commission- 
er, 99. 

Deaf  and  blind  institutes,  52. 

Delegates,  election  of  mem- 
bers of  House  of,  86,  87. 

Democratic  party,  see  Polit- 
ical Parties. 

Departments,  of  government, 
86;  executive,  of  state  gov- 
ernment, 96-102;  executive, 
of  national  government, 
195-198. 

Desires  of  individuals,  3,  4; 
government  assistance  for, 
6. 

Diplomatic  representatives, 
137,  193. 

Diseases,  protection  against, 
23,   24. 

District  of  Columbia,  govern- 
ment of,  173. 


District  attorney,  U.  S.,  197, 

206. 
District  courts,  U.  S.,  201,  202. 
Division   of  powers,   between 

national     government    and 

states,   167,   168. 
Division   superintendents,    of 

schools,  98,  115,  124. 
Drinking     water,     protection 

against  impure,  24,  25. 
Dunmore,  Lord,  68. 
Duties,  customs,  208-210. 

Education,  why  the  govern- 
ment promotes,  43;  history 
of,  in  Va.,  43-46;  in  New 
England,  44,  45;  private 
and  public,  46,  47;  aims  of 
government  in,  48-50;  in 
cities,  50,  51;  higher,  51,  52; 
State  Board  of,  97;  see  also 
Schools. 

Election,  places  of,  76;  offi- 
cers of,  76;  see  also  Yates 
and  Yoters. 

Electors,  presidential,  185-188. 

Electrocution,  22. 

Eminent  domain,  definition 
of,  34;  power  of,  given  to 
railroads,  34;  distinguished 
from  taxation,  34,  128. 

Engineer,   road,   58,   59. 

Established  church,  16,  17. 

Examinations,  for  physicians, 
and  pharmacists,  26,  102; 
for  teachers,  98;  for  den- 
tists, 102;  for  graduate 
nurses,  102;  for  veterinar- 
ians, 102;  for  embalmers, 
102;  for  lawyers,  102. 

Examiners,  State  Boards  of, 
98,  102. 

Excise  taxes,  210,  211. 

Executive  department,  of 
state  government,  86,  96- 
102;  of  national  govern- 
ment, 195-198. 

Experimental  farms,  41. 

Ex  post  facto  law,  170,  172. 


226 


INDEX. 


Family  group,  2;  responsi- 
bility of,  toward  education, 
47. 

Farmers'   institutes,   42. 

Farming  communities,  3. 

Farms,  government  assistance 
to,  38-42;  drinking  water 
on,  24;  appearance  of,  59-62. 

Farmville,   51. 

Federal  government,  meaning 
of,  167-1G8;  21^,  220. 

Federal  reserve  banks,  153, 
154. 

Federal  Reserve  Board,  198. 

Federal  Trade  Commission, 
198. 

Fertilizers,  control  of,  38. 

Fires,  protection  against,  12. 

It),    0-,     D<J. 

Food  inspection,  by  state  gov- 
ernment, 25,  26,  99;  by  na- 
tional government,  148,  197. 

Foreign  affairs,  control  of, 
136-138;  President's  power 
over,   193. 

Forests,  national,  155. 

Fortress  Monroe,  143. 

Franchise  taxes,   130,  131. 

Franklin,   Benjamin,    159. 

F'redericksburg,  51. 

Freedom,  of  speech,  15,  16,  71, 
171;  of  religion,  16,  17,  171; 
of  person,  14,  17,  163. 

General  Assembly,  houses  of, 
86;  organization  of,  86-88; 
sessions  of,  87;  powers  of, 
89;  meetings  of,  90. 

Geography  of  Va.,  111. 

Girls'  canning  clubs,  42. 

Government,  why  established, 
6-8;  protection  of  life  and 
liberty  by,  10-15;  liberty 
under,  14-17;  protection  of 
health  by,  23-29;  protection 
of  property  by,  30-33;  con- 
trol over  property  by,  33- 
36;  ownership  of  property 
by,  36;  promotion  of  agri- 
culture by,     38-42;     promo- 


tion of  education  by,  43-54; 
control  over  roads,  streets, 
and  parks  by,  50-66;  respon- 
sibility of,  for  streets,  65; 
organization  of,  86;  of 
counties,  111-116;  of  cities, 
118-125;  support  of,  127-131; 
necessity  for  national,  135; 
functions  of  national,  136- 
155;  under  Articles  of  Con- 
federation, 158,  159;  organ- 
ization of  national,  175-206; 
development  of,  217,  218. 

Governor,  election  of,  93; 
term  of,  93;  qualifications 
of,  93;  powers  and  duties 
of,  94,  95. 

Grand  jury.  20,  21,  171. 

Habeas  Corpus,  170. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  159. 

Harbors,  improvement  of,  147, 
148.  196. 

Harrisonburg,  51. 

Hawaii,    government   of,    173. 

Health,  desire  for,  3;  pro- 
tection of,  by  government, 
23-29;  state  department  of, 
100. 

High  Schools,  42,  48,  51. 

Hospitals,  23;  for  insane, 
101. 

House  of  Burgesses,  68. 

House  of  Delegates,  86.  87; 
representation  in,  86,  87. 

House  of  Representatives, 
175-177;  representation  in, 
175-177;  power  of,  to  choose 
President,  188;  power  of,  to 
bring  impeachments,  203. 

Immigration,  138,  139,  197. 

impeachment,    203. 

Implied  powers  of  Congress, 
108,  169. 

Income  taxes,  state,  130;  na- 
tional, 164,  211. 

Indictment,  by  grand  jury,  20, 
21,  171. 

Initiative,   77,  78. 


lADKX. 


227 


Innocence,  presumption  of,  19. 

Insane,  hospitals  for,  101. 

Inspection,  of  milk  and  foods, 
25,  26,  148;  of  fertilizers, 
38;  of  seeds,  40;  of  cattle, 
40;  of  boats,  146;  of  meats, 
148. 

Interior,  U.  S.  Department  of, 
197. 

Internal  Revenue,  210,  211. 

Interstate  commerce,  145, 
148;  Commission,  198. 

Institutes,   farmers',   42. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  17,  43,  51, 
56,  57,  159,   189. 

Judges,  appointment  of,  in 
Va.,  108;  term  of  in  Va., 
108;  appointment  of  nation- 
al, 202,  203;  term  of  nation- 
al, 203 ;  impeachment  of  na- 
tional, 203. 

Judiciary  department,  of 
state,  86;  of  national  gov- 
ernment, 200. 

Jurisdiction,  of  various  courts 
in  Va.,  105-108;  of  various 
national  courts,  200-202, 
204,  205. 

Jury,  right  of  trial  by,  21, 
171. 

Justice,  U.  S.  Department  of, 
196,  197. 

Justices  of  peace,  105,  106, 
114. 

Labor,  protection  of,  13,  27, 
28;  state  Bureau  of,  100; 
Commissioner  of,  100;  pro- 
motion of  interests  of,  148; 
U.  S.  Department  of,  197. 

Land  assessors,   114. 

Laws,  how  made  in  Va.,  88, 
89;  execution  of,  in  Va.,  93- 
102;  interpretation  of,  in 
Va.,  104;  county,  112;  city, 
120,  121;  how  made  in 
Congress,  182,  183;  execu- 
tion of  national,  185,  198; 
interpretation  of  national, 
200. 


Legislative  department,  86, 
175. 

Legislature,  see  General  As- 
sembly and  Congress. 

Libel,  protection  against,  16. 

Liberty,  desire  for,  3;  mean- 
ing of,  in  a  community,  14, 
15;  protection  of,  15-17, 
170-172;  growth  of,  215-217. 

Libraries,  54. 

Lieutenant-Governor,  88,  94. 

Life,  desire  for,  3;  protection 
of,  10-22. 

Life-saving  stations,  147. 

Lighthouses,    146,    147. 

Liquors,    prohibition    of    sale 
of,     26,     27;     taxation    on 
manufacture  of,  210. 

Literary  Fund,   43,  44. 

Lobbying,  91,  92. 

Local  option,  formerly  in  Va., 
26,  27. 

Madison,  James,  17,  159. 

Magisterial  districts,  112,  114. 

Marion,   101. 

Marshall,  John,   201. 

Mayor,  powers  cf,  121-124; 
election  of,  121;  under  com- 
mission government,  124; 
town,  125. 

Medical  College  of  Va.,  51. 

Message,  of  Governor,  94;  of 
President,  189. 

Military  Academy,  U.  S.,  196. 

Militia,   11,   95,    140-142. 

Milk,  protection  against  im- 
pure, 25,  26. 

Ministers,  foreign,  137,  193. 

Mints,  U.  S.,  152. 

Money  system,  national  con- 
trol of,  151-152. 

National  banks,  152,  153. 
National       constitution,     see 

Constitution. 
National  courts,  see  Courts. 
Naturalization,   139-140,   197. 
Naval  Academy,  U.  S.,  196. 
Navigation,    control    of,   146, 

147. 


INDEX. 


». 


Navy,  U.  S.  Department  of, 
196. 

New  England,  education  in, 
44-4G;  township  govern- 
ment in,  11],  112. 

Newport  News,   52,  118. 

Nomination,  by  parties,  82-85, 
of  President,  186-188;  of 
senators,  178,  179;  of  con- 
gressmen, 178,  179. 

Norfolk,  view  of,  5;  library 
in,   54;   population   of,   118. 

Normal  schools,  51,  52. 

Panama  Canal,  143,  147. 

Parcel  post,  loO. 

Pardoning  power,  of  Govern- 
or, 95;  of  President,  193. 

Parks,  in  cities,  66. 

Patents,   154. 

Pavements,  street,  62-65. 

Penitentiary,  101. 

Petersburg,  52,  101. 

Philippine   Islands,    143,   173. 

Platform,  party,  188,  189. 

Playgrounds,  66. 

Police,  in  cities,  10,  31,  93, 
121. 

Political  parties,  origin  of, 
81;  necessity  for,  81;  or- 
ganization of,  82;  state  and 
local  conventions  of,  83,  179, 
186;  primary  elections  of, 
83-85,  179;  control  of,  over 
Congress,  178,  179;  control 
of,  over  presidential  elec- 
tions, 186-188;  national  con- 
vention of,  188. 

Polls,  76. 

Poll  tax,  76,   131. 

Poor,  protection  of,  14;  super- 
intendent of,  114. 

Porto  Rico,  government  of, 
173. 

Postal  savings  banks,  150. 
Postal  service,  148-151;  con- 
trol of,  148;  support  of,  208. 

Postmaster  General,  196. 

Post  Office  Department,  196. 

Precincts,  election,  76. 


President,  election  of,  163, 
185-188;  nomination  of, 
188;  powers  of,  189-193; 
importance  of  position  of, 
193,  194;  qualifications  of, 
194;  successor  to,  194. 

Presidential  electors,  185-188. 

Primary  elections,  meaning 
of,  83,  84;  in  Va.,  83-85;  for 
nomination  of  state  officers, 
83,  85;  for  nomination  of 
local  officers,  83,  85;  for 
nomination  of  U.  S.  sena- 
tors, 178,  179;  for  nomina- 
tion of  congressmen,  178, 
179;  for  nomination  of 
presidential  electors,  186; 
for  nomination  of  delegates 
to  national  conventions, 
188. 

Procedure,  in  courts  of  Va., 
108,  109;  in  national 
courts,  206. 

Prohibition,  in  Va.,  26,  27. 

Property,  definition  of,  4,  30; 
uses  of,  4,  33;  in  land  and 
buildings,  30;  protection  of, 
by  government,  30-33;  con- 
trol over,  by  government, 
33-36;  improvement  of,  by 
government  improvements, 
35,  36;  ownership  of,  by 
government,  36;  taxes  on, 
129,  130;  real,  129;  person- 
al, 130;  exempt  from  tax- 
ation,  130. 

Protective  tariff,  209,  210. 

Public   lands,    155. 

Quarantine  regulations,  23,  24. 

Radford,    51. 

Railroads,  protection  against, 
34,  35,  99;  power  of  emi- 
nent domain  given  to,  34; 
state  control  of,  34,  35,  99; 
national  control  over  inter- 
state, 145,  146,  198. 

Real  estate,  taxes  on,  129, 
130. 


INDEX. 


229. 


Reapportionment,      in      Con- 
gress, 177. 
Recall,  77,  78. 

Referendum,   77,   78. 
Register  of  Land  Office,  102. 
Registration  of  voters,  75,  76. 
Removal,  Governor's  power  of, 

95;   mayor's  power  of,  171; 

President's   power   of,  192; 

of    national    judges,    upon 

conviction  on  impeachment, 

203. 

Representative  government, 
meaning  of,   73,   74. 

Representatives,  see  Con- 
gressmen. 

Republican  party,  see  Politi- 
cal  Parties. 

Reserve  banks,  federal,  153, 
154. 

Reserved  powers,  of  the 
states,  167-170. 

Revolutionary  War,  68,  128, 
157,   158. 

Richmond,  51,  90,  155;  popu- 
lation of,   118. 

Riots,  protection  against,  11, 
95. 

Rivers,  improvement  of,  147, 
148,  196. 

Roads,  necessity  for  good,  56, 
57;  toll,  57,  58;  provision 
for,  in  Va.,  59;  appearance 
of,  59-62;  state  assistance 
for,  100. 

Roanoke,   population   of,    118. 

Rural  free  delivery,  150. 

School  board,  county,  115; 
city,  124. 

Schools,  agricultural,  42,  155; 
history  of,  in  Va.,  43-46; 
consolidated,  48,  49;  trans- 
portation to,  48,  49;  in 
cities,  50,  51;  how  the  com- 
munity is  helped  by,  52,  53; 
appearance  of,  61,  62;  see 
also  Educat'on. 

School    system,  beginning  of. 


in  Va.,  43-46;   organization 
of,   97,  98. 

Secretary,  of  the  Common- 
wealth, 94,  96;  of  State, 
195;  of  the  Treasury,  195; 
of  War,  196;  of  the  Navy, 
196;  of  the  Interior, 
197;  of  Agriculture,  197;  of 
Commerce,  197;  of  Labor, 
197. 

Seeds,  regulation  of,  40. 

Senate,  of  Va.,  86-88. 

Senate,  U.  S.,  power  of,  over 
treaties,  137;  representa- 
tion in,  177,  178;  power  of, 
over  appointments,  191, 
192;  as  a  court  of  impeach- 
ment, 203. 

Senator,  state,  election  of,  86- 
88. 

Senators,  U.  S.,  election  of, 
164,  165,  17S;  nomination 
of,  178,  179;  terms  of,  178; 
qualifications  of,  180;  pow- 
er of,  over  appointments, 
191,   192. 

Sewerage  systems,  28. 

Sheriff,   10,   31,   114. 

Slavery,  abolished,  17,  163; 
in  Va.,  effect  of,  45,  46,  118. 

Soldiers,  care  of  aged,  14; 
see  also  Army  and  Militia. 

Speaker,  of  House  of-  Dele- 
gates, 88;  of  House  of  Rep- 
reseiatatives,  181. 

Special   assessments,   36,   129. 

State,  U.  S.  Department  of, 
195. 

State  Board  of  Education,  97, 
115;  of  Examiners,  98,  102; 
of  Agriculture  and  Immi- 
gration, 98,  99;  o;  Health, 
100;  of  Charities  and  Cor- 
rections, 102;  of  Fisheries, 
102. 

States,  pro^^ection  of,  against 
insurrection,  11,  95;  com- 
merce between.  145,  148, 
198;  ratification  of  U.  S. 
constitution  by,    160,    161; 


230 


1M)KX. 


protection  of.  against  suits, 
1G3;  dependence  and  inde- 
pendence of,  1G7,  1G8;  pow- 
ers of,  169,  170;  restrictions 
on  powers  of,  171,  172;  rep- 
resentation of,  in  Congress, 
175-177;  protection  against, 
205.  20G. 

Staunton.    52,    101. 

Streets,  planning  of.  G2;  pav- 
ing of,  62;  uses  of,  62,  63; 
appearance  of,  33-65;  liglit- 
ing  of,  G2;  sprinkling  of. 
64;  government  responsibil- 
ity for,  65. 

Suffrage,  see  Voters. 

Superintendent,  of  Public  In- 
struction, 94,  97;  of  schools, 
98,  115,  124;  of  penitentiary, 
101;  of  printing.  102. 

Supervisors,  county  board  of, 
112. 

Supreme  Court,  of  Appeals  in 
Va.,  106-108;  of  U.  S.,  200, 
201,  205,  206. 

Surveyor,  county,  115. 

Tariff,  protective.  209,  210. 

Taxation,  necessity  for,  127, 
128;  distinguished  from 
eminent  domain,  128;  prin- 
ciples of,  in  Va.,  128,  129; 
forms  of,  in  Va.,  129,  131; 
in  cities,  121;  necessity  for 
national,  208;  forms  of  na- 
tional. 208-211 ;  national  and 
state,  compared,  211,  212; 
restrictions  on  national, 
212,    213. 

Taxes,  definition  of,  127;  on 
property,  129;  on  incomes, 
130,  164,  211;  franchise, 
130,  131;  poll,  76,  131;  state 
and  local,  131;  indirect. 
209;  excise,  210,  211;  stamp. 
211;  direct,  212,  213. 

Teachers,  examination  of,  98; 
appointment  of,  115. 

Telegraph  service,  control 
over,  35,  99.  145,  146,  198. 


Telephone      service,      control 

over,  ;35,  99,  145,  146,  198. 
Territories,     government    of, 

<  J,     1  (O. 

Town   meeting,   ill,   112. 
Towns,    government    of,   124, 

125. 
Township     government.     111, 

112. 
Trade   Commission,    Federal, 

198. 
Treasurer,     of    Va.,     94,     97, 

county,  114,  115;  city,  121. 
Treasury   Department,  U.   S., 

195.  196. 
Treaties,  the  making  of,  137. 

Union  of  states,   reason    for, 

157,  158. 
University  of  Virginia,  51. 

Veto,  of  Governor,  94;  of 
mayor.  121;  of  President, 
189,   190;    pocket,   190. 

Vice-President,  duty  of,  181, 
194;  election  of,  185-188. 

Virginia  Military  Institute, 
51. 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute. 42.  51. 

Voters,  qualifications  for,  in 
Va.,  75,  76;  218.  219. 

Votes,  how  cast,  76,  77;  how 
counted,  77;  right  of  negro 
to  cast,  164. 

War,  power  to  make,  140;  U. 

S.  Department  of,  196. 
War  Between  the  States,  17, 

44,  70,  163,  164. 
Wards,  in  cities,  76,  120,  122. 
Washington,  George,  159. 
Washington,  137,  195,  201. 
Waterworks,    24,  25. 
West   Virginia,   suit   against, 

204. 
William  and  Mary  College,  51, 
Williamsburg,  51,  101. 
Wilson,  Woodrow.  74,  189. 
Witnesses,  21. 
Woman  suffrage.  74,  219. 


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